Aviation
Learning From Experience: The Human Element of Aircraft Accidents
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Author Wing Commander Ross Priday |
| Abstract Few Royal Air Force officers will have had to deal with the aftermath of two separate fatal air accidents, the second happening right in front of personnel under his command. This is the leadership challenge that Wing Commander Ross Priday faced as the chief engineer of the Red Arrows in November 2011. With the future of the world famous aerobatic team in doubt, the cause of the accident needed to be quickly and positively determined so that measures could be put in place to restore confidence in the aircraft and equipment. Trust between the aircrew and groundcrew became strained and pilots were understandably nervous about returning to flight without a clear root-cause being determined. Ultimately, the accident highlighted that no matter how unlikely a scenario might be, the holes in the Swiss cheese model could still line up and cause a fatality. The subsequent Military Air Accident Investigation Branch (MilAAIB) findings had far-reaching implications for military aircraft operations in the RAF, challenging cultures and procedures that had been in place for many years. With a focus on learning from experience, Priday openly talks through the most difficult, but also the most rewarding 2 years of his life. |
CEOs on Safety Culture: Views from the Top
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Author Barry KIRWAN |
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Review of UAV Loss of Control In-Flight: Accidents and Incidents
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Author Rahma El Safany, Michael A.Bromfield |
| Abstract Sixty Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle accident reports were analysed to identify possible causal and contributory factors leading to loss of control in flight and recovery actions where applicable. Manufacturing and design errors were dominant in 22 causal factors (34% of events) and 18 contributory factors (22% of events) (e.g. ingestion of precipitation). Recovery was not attempted in 35 (55%) events. The relationship between age, total hours experience, hours experience on type, recovery attempts and number of accidents increase with operator age or lack of experience was also analysed. As total experience increases the number of accidents and attempted recovery increases. All this information is presented in a framework adapted from the Accident Route Matrix to recognise loss of control in flight in future accidents and improve recovery response. |
Exploring safety culture in the military aviation context
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Author Anthea ASHFORD, Elizabeth HELLIER, Robert BRIDGER and Andrew WEYMAN |
| Abstract While understanding safety culture has become an integral part of many safety management systems, considerable debate on the concept remains. The contextual approach to exploring safety culture has gained interest, using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The current study explored the meaning of safety culture and its underlying components in a military aviation organization. Qualitative analysis yielded six overall themes; these were then developed into a quantitative survey and analyzed using components analysis to explore the underlying themes. |
AIRBUS´ Approach to Improve Travel Comfort for Wheelchair Users
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Author Hans-Gerhard Giesa & Ralf Schliwa |
| Abstract This paper introduces concepts and solutions which aim at improving the travel comfort for wheelchair users inside the aircraft. Airbus has historically taken a proactive approach on accessibility working on comfort improvements and solutions for passengers beyond regulation. An outline of this user-centred approach is given showing how the needs and expectations of a high diversity of end-users is considered during product research and development. Exemplary solutions are presented that are dedicated to the accessibility of aircraft lavatories for persons with reduced mobility and to the reliable and damage free transport of wheelchairs in an aircraft. |
Culture in helicopter pilots: Case for using the Implicit Association Test
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Author Anna Kaminska, Amy Irwin, Devin Ray & Rhona Flin |
| Abstract Culture relates to shared norms, values and practices associated with one’s nation, organisation or profession. While being a key input factor contributing to team performance and mission accomplishment, culture is often overlooked. The current paper summarises previous findings on the influence of professional culture (military- vs. civilian-trained) in helicopter pilots and proposes using of the Implicit Association Test as a behavioural measure of reported risk-taking behaviours. |
Exploring Changes in Pilot Behaviour during Distributed Crewing
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Author Kirsten REVELL, Neville STANTON and Gregory KELLEHER |
| Abstract Changes to crewing configurations in commercial planes are likely to emerge as a means of reducing operating costs. An exploratory study was conducted whereby two pilots with commercial experience enacted a normal and emergency flight scenario in a simulated flight deck in two conditions: 1) co-located crew, and; 2) distributed crew. Operational Event Sequence Diagrams (OESDs) were created to represent pilot actions and interactions to explore how pilots’ behaviour changed during distributed crewing. Extracts of OESDs are provided to illustrate similarities and differences, and the implications for the future flight deck are discussed. |
The influence of the angle of attack on passenger comfort
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Author Yayu Ping, Xinhe Yao, Jun Xu, Juntian Li, Yu (Wolf) Song & Peter Vink |
| Abstract The angle of attack (AOA) of an airplane changes the direction of the gravitational force on passengers and thereby might influence passengers’ flying experience. However, the contribution of the AOA regarding comfort/discomfort is not fully explored. In this paper, we aim to fill this knowledge gap by identifying the relationships between the perceived comfort/ discomfort of passengers and the AOA of the plane during the take-off and climbing phases of a flight. An experiment is conducted in a Boeing 737 fuselage where 10 participants were recruited. Each participant experiences 3 setups of seats with different AOAs (3, 14 and 18 degrees) for 20 minutes, respectively. Participants were asked to complete several sets of questionnaires during each session, and their heart rate and the pressure on the seat and the backrest were recorded as well. Experiment results indicated that participants experienced 14-degree as the most comfortable angle with the lowest discomfort, which might be useful for airlines in setting up the take-off and climbing procedure. |
Automated Anomalies – Exploring Experiences Commercial Pilots have with Automation
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Author Siddharth Shyamsundar & Dr Nigel Hunt |
| Abstract This exploratory study investigates commercial pilots’ lived experiences with their automated cockpits. Using interpretative phenomenological analysis, a unique dual-impact theory of automation on situational awareness is uncovered. Recommendations focusing on integrating adaptive automation, pilot-in-the loop systems, system transparency, effective autonomy and promoting opportunities for applying manual flying skills are provided. |
“Taxiing down the runway with half a bolt hanging out the bottom”: affective influences on decision making in general aviation maintenance engineers
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Author Kate Kingshott & Anjum Naweed |
| Abstract Maintenance engineers of aircraft in General Aviation work in a highly time pressured, complex and dynamic environment where errors in decision making could have far reaching consequences. However, few studies have investigated the role and influence of affect on the decision-making process in this setting. Using interviews and a scenario invention method, this study investigated the affective influences in decision making and corresponding responses in General Aviation maintenance engineering work in the Australian context. Preliminary findings based on inductive analysis identified a number of themes including affective response to task interruption specific to work colleagues and customers or management personnel, impact of negative rumination and the role of pride as a safety factor. Findings are discussed in terms of the impact of different affective states with implications for future research directions on crew resource training and non-technical skills development. |
Exploring workload and performance through the use of visual analytics
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Author Joanne Kitchin & Chris Baber |
| Abstract In Visual Analytics, the output of automated analysis is presented to users in an interactive visualisation. By responding to this, the user can modify the parameters of the computer visualisation. This raises questions about the design of the visualisation and the appropriate level of interaction for users. This paper focuses on the impact of visualisation on user performance. A simple air target detection task (in which automated support identified possible threat aircraft) was combined with a secondary task (in which target letters had to be detected against a background). Four visual analytic displays were used to complete a target detection task over two studies. The first study explored how the displays affected workload, attentional demand and performance, and the second how workload, attentional demand and performance are affected by task load (using the same displays). Results show that the use of visual analytic displays maintains response time and primary task performance when task load increases. This suggests that the demand on attention is easier to manage when visual analytic displays are used. |
Pilots’ Scan-path and Attention Shifts during Tactical Manoeuvres
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Author Wen-Chin LI, Chen-Kai HSU, Graham BRAITHWAITE and Matthew GREAVES |
| Abstract Understanding the cognitive processes of pilots’ fixation shifts and attention distributions can facilitate training of tactical maneuvers and improve both performance and flight safety. Thirty-five military pilots participated in the current study. By analyzing eye movement data, it is possible to identify what the military pilot was looking at during particular moments in the flight. A pilot’s attention is likely to remain one of the critical and limited resources that will need to be confronted in the development of new technology. It is important that the nature of pilots’ attention and fixation distributions is understood in order to assess and manage the implications of new technology in the cockpit. |
Lesson Learned – the similarities and differences of human factors in Aircraft Maintenance between JL123 and CI611
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Author Punthit Kulsomboon, Edem Yao Tsei, Gayatri Rebbapragada & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract This paper makes use of the human factors analysis and classification system (HFACS) to analyse maintenance-related causal factors of two accidents - Japan Air Lines (JAL) flight 123 (JL123) and China Airlines (CAL) flight 611 (CI611). Furthermore, the pathways that could have resulted in the two accidents were identified by applying the HFACS framework. The study also compares the similarities and differences between these accidents. The findings of this paper lend support to past research on HFACS where higher levels at an organisation have been shown to have directly affected the lower levels. Lessons from these accidents have also been identified in order to prevent recurrences. |
Objective comparison of two cushions: pressure distribution and postural perceived discomfort
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Author Iolanda Fiorillo, Yu Song, Rosaria Califano, Peter Vink & Alessandro Naddeo |
| Abstract Designing seats is crucial not only for health issues but also for the (dis)comfort perception. The seat pan design could be mainly influenced by two factors: pressure distribution and seat contour. For seat pan discomfort, the lower average pressure is accompanied by less discomfort. Moreover, a seat contour with a large contact area is correlated with more comfort. So, a shaped seat pan was accurately realized following the buttock-thigh shape of an international population (including P5 females and P95 males). For the comfort assessment, a comparison was made between this shaped seat pan (shaped cushion) and a standard aircraft seat pan (flat cushion). Twenty-two international participants (11 males and 11 females, with BMI between 16 and 30) took part in the blind experiment assuming six different postures. Subjective data were gained from questionnaires, whose results showed that the shaped cushion is better in terms of perceived postural comfort. Also, 64% of participants chose the shaped cushion as a preferred cushion because it was more comfortable and suitable for the buttock shape. Objective data were gathered with a pressure mat, and results showed a higher contact area and lower mean pressure distribution for shaped cushion. Significant correlations were calculated between objective and subjective data with Spearman Correlation coefficients. |
Use pressure data below seat cushions to evaluate comfort
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Author Xinhe Yao, Yufei He, Norbert Hessenberger, Yu Song & Peter Vink |
| Abstract During a flight, passengers spend most of their time sitting in their seats. Studying the comfort and discomfort while passengers are sitting is helpful to improve the overall comfort during a flight. Pressure mats are commonly used in studies to collect pressure distribution in order to research sitting comfort. Different from most past studies, in which pressure mats are placed on the top of the cushions, the focus of this paper is to show the potential of placing pressure mat below the seat cushion. Three identical cushions differing in stiffness were prepared. The pressure distribution of 12 sitting postures was collected from 33 subjects both at the top as well as at the bottom of the foam in a randomized order. After sitting on each cushion, the participant was asked to leave the seat and complete a sitting comfort and discomfort questionnaire. The results show that the softest cushion got the highest rank in short-term comfort and lowest rank in short-term discomfort. The recorded pressure distributions both on the top and at the bottom of the foam can influence comfort and discomfort. This indicates the potential to use pressure distributions under the foam to evaluate the perceived comfort and discomfort in sitting, which might reduce the intrusive feeling of the participants in comfort studies. |
Lion Air JT610 Boeing 737 Max 8 accident – human factors analysis
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Author Michael A. Bromfield & Nils Jamieson |
| Abstract Lion Air JT610 departed Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, Jakarta Indonesia for Depati Amir Airport, Pangkal Pinang on the 29th of October 2018 at 06:20 AM local time. As the aircraft passed through 2,000 ft during the initial climb-out, it pitched down and the crew attempted recovery but were unable to do so. At 06:32 AM the aircraft crashed into the sea with an airspeed in excess of 400 knots. All 189 persons on board lost their lives. This fatal accident was a loss of control in flight (LOC-I) or “unintended deviation from flightpath”, the number one category of fatal accident type over the last 60 years. Aircraft technology has seen significant development over this period with a corresponding reduction in fatal accident rate, yet LOC-I still persists. With technological advancements how could an accident like this have happened? This paper will explore contributory and causal human factors and what is proposed to prevent future occurrences. |
The influences of flight deck interface design on pilot situation awareness and perceived workload
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Author Wen-Chin Li, Andreas Horn & Jingyi Zhang |
| Abstract There are numerous accidents and incidents related to mode confusion. Autothrottle and autopilot are traditionally separated systems on the flight deck, however they can interact through the physics of flight. Avionic engineers have been applying automation to reduce pilot’s workload and enhance flight safety. While basic automated systems performed quite simple tasks such as holding altitude or heading, modern flight guidance and control systems typically have different modes of operation. A new flight mode annunciator (FMA) concept was compared with traditional FMA in conjunction with eye-tracking and NASA-TLX measurements. The experiment involved 17 participants, aged between 22 and 47 years (M = 29.18, SD = 6.73). The results showed that the augmented display significantly reduced the perceived workload on mental demand, temporal demand, and effort by NASA-TLX; also increasing performance and situation awareness during climbing turn on the perception of mode changing by call-out. Furthermore, participant’s fixation duration has significant differences on airspeed and altitude indicators between traditional design and augmented design by adding visual cues of a green border. The relatively high cognitive effort to interpret the existing flight mode annunciation is certainly a contributing factor in mode confusion. The significant differences in fixation duration and subjective workload demonstrate the potential benefits of the proposed visualization cue on the FMA. By simply highlighting the parameters that are controlled by the automation, it greatly reduces pilot workload and enhances situation awareness in mode changing. |
Applying artificial intelligence on electronic flight bag for single pilot operations
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Author Takashi Nagasawa |
| Abstract Single pilot operations (SPO) is an operational concept which commercial aviation industry is considering. Artificial Intelligence (AI) hosted on Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) has a potential to become a buddy for pilot in SPO. This short paper presents an operational concept of SPO with EFB/AI and further discussion based on empirical exploration to achieve the objective on integration AI with EFB design. |
Consideration of Cultural Differences in Future Workplace Design for Single Pilot Operations
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Author Wesley Tsz-Kin Chan & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract Future innovations in aviation such as enhanced automation and single pilot operations are projected to change human pilots’ roles, tasks, and occupational structures, requiring adaptations in the human-machine interactive interface. The integration of human users with these interfaces, however, remains the greatest challenge. Research is required to understand how to select an appropriate level of automation for future work, and whether skills and experience gained on present generation aircraft can be transferred onto upcoming, next-generation interfaces and occupational roles. Using the Values Survey Module to gauge pilots’ (N=40) cultural attitudes on Hofstede’s dimensions, this study compares pilots’ intrinsic behavioural preferences with three experience factors of age, qualification level, and total flight hours. It was discovered that the dimension of Power Distance was correlated with age, and that Individualism, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance attitudes were more reflective of extrinsic, surface-level behaviours. An understanding of how different experience factors influence non-technical skills in the long term has the potential to create a better fit between the human and the machine by taking into account role-relevance and changes in cognitive models of operators. |
Flight operations using touchscreen controls: assessing system usability and pilots’ visual attention
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Author Wen-Chin Li, Yung-Hsiang Liang & Wojciech Tomasz Korek |
| Abstract Although the integration of multifunction touch screen controls (TSCs) in future flight decks is under development, some safety concerns still exist from pilots’ point of view. It is important that usability and human factors considerations are therefore studied in realistic operational environments. This short paper investigates the usability and human-computer interaction associated with TSCs, using eye tracking technology for future flight deck design. |
Assessing pilots’ situation awareness using touchscreen inceptor
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Author Kyle Hu, Wojciech Tomasz Korek & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract This research aims to investigate the innovative technology of touchscreen inceptor impact on pilots' situation awareness compared to a traditional sidestick. The Pupil Lab eye tracker collected pilots' fixation counts in the Future Systems Simulator (FSS), and subjective measure was the situation awareness rating technique (SART). A significant difference was spotted in the attention demand, understanding, and total score from SART analysis. Furthermore, the visual parameter of fixation counts indicated that pilots spent less time on OTW and more time on PFD when interacting with the touchscreen inceptor compared to the sidestick. The findings show the potential to implement a touchscreen in future flight deck designs. |
Assessing pilots’ situation awareness on Future Systems Simulator
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Author Laurie Marsman, Dominique Bovell, Stuart Christie, Brian Green & Beatriz Martinez Gutierrez |
| Abstract The present paper reports the results of a trial investigating pilots’ situation awareness in the Future Systems Simulator (FSS). Both PF and PM positions and accompanying tasks in the simulator are considered. Moreover, a follow-up session with current airline pilots in the study provides perspectives on the practical application of the FSS. |
Ergonomics of paragliding reserve deployment
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Author Matt Wilkes, Geoff Long, Heather Massey, Clare Eglin, Mike Tipton and Rebecca Charles |
| Abstract Paragliding is an emerging discipline of aviation, which is considered relatively high risk. Reserve parachutes are rarely used, but typical deployments are at low altitude, with pilots under the extreme stress of a life-threatening situation. To date, paraglider equipment design has focused primarily on weight and aerodynamics, so reserve parachute deployment systems have evolved haphazardly. Our study aimed to characterise deployment behaviours in amateur pilots. Fifty-five paraglider pilots were filmed deploying their reserve parachutes from a zipline. Test conditions were designed for ecologically valid body, hand and gaze positions; cognitive loading and switching; and physical disorientation akin to a real deployment. The footage was reviewed by two groups of subject matter experts. It was noted that pilots searched for the reserve handle using the hip as an anatomical landmark and tried to extract the deployment bag upwards, irrespective of optimum direction. Recommendations, which are being incorporated into the latest draft of the European Norm for harness design included: positioning reserve handles at the pilot’s hip; better system integration between different manufacturers; and containers being designed so deployment bags are extractable at any angle of pull. Deployment in a single, sweeping action should be encouraged in preference to the multiple actions sometimes taught. |
Assessing pilots’ mental workload using touchscreen inceptor for future flight deck design
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Author Joao Paulo Macedo, Kyle Hu, Rani Quiram & Samarth Vilas Burande |
| Abstract Touchscreen displays are one of the pillars of future flight deck design and it is foreseen that at some point traditional flight control inceptors will be modified to a touchscreen version. However, this transition can only be safe and successful with due regard for human performance implications. This study addresses it by comparing pilots’ mental workload for a traditional sidestick and an innovative touchscreen control inceptor. The results indicate that the new technology increases pilot workload, suggesting that further development is required to use it in future flight decks. |
Manual control versus management-by-consent in managing multiple threats
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Author Chris Baber & Natan S. Morar |
| Abstract As the use of Uninhabited Aerial Systems (UAS) increases, e.g., for commercial delivery, for surveillance or for hostile action, there are challenges of monitoring and appropriately responding to a crowded airspace. Providing automated support could reduce the challenges. However, such support might also have an impact on the strategy that a human operator deploys. In this paper we present a simulation of Air Defence (in the form of a single-player, interactive game) which is used to study human performance under three conditions. Provision of decision support, i.e., through management by consent, produced better performance, even though it provided a limited situation awareness. A hybrid display produces performance that is superior to the manual control condition and similar to the management by consent condition. We note that provision of the air picture alone resulted in a different form of suboptimal performance, in which sensitivity was significantly lower. In this respect, providing the decision support (in the form of the polygon display) helps to limit tendency for false alarms. |
Evaluating System Usability of Augmented Reality in Flight Operations
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Author Wen-Chin Li, Tim Bord, Jingyi Zhang, Graham Braithwaite and Mudassir Lone |
| Abstract The human-centred design of augmented visualisation aids can have significant effect on human performance and cognitive processes by increasing an operator’s capability to manage complex checklists. This study investigated the use of an Augmented Reality (AR) device as a cockpit integration tool and the possible new challenges relating to Human-Computer interactions it induces. Seventeen aviation professionals (pilots, engineers, and training pilots) aged from 23 to 53 (M=29.82, SD=8.93) participated in this experiment. Their flight experience ranged from zero flight hours to 3000 flight hours (M=605.00, SD=1051.04). Two types of interaction - by gesture and voice control, have been compared with traditional paper checklists. The results show that gesture control AR gives rise to unnecessary complexity and tends to be cumbersome to use. On the other hand, voice control AR checklists could constitute an improvement in terms of usability of checklists completion in flight operations. Paper checklists tend to score higher in terms of ‘learnability’ as it is the simplest way to use a traditional checklist. It is also interesting to find that voice control AR checklists tend to be rated as the highest on both the total score of System Usability Scale (SUS) and in terms of ‘usability’. These phenomena are consistent with the comments of participants that they would prefer to apply a voice control AR checklist over a paper checklist, if they were more familiar with it in the future. The improvement in modes of interaction and the presentation of information could lead to changes in usability and operational procedures. There is a need for further exploration of the implications of AR technology on the flight deck before implementation. |
Event Prototypes in Airline Transport Operations
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Author Richard CLEWLEY and Jim NIXON |
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Performance and workload using an audible intelligent assistant during pilot training
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Author David A. Hudson & Michael A. Bromfield |
| Abstract Boeing forecast that globally an additional 602,000 pilots will be needed by 2041 to meet year on year growth of 3.6% in passenger traffic. All pilots need to be trained in accordance with accepted regulatory standards. New technology is continuously being developed to enhance training and reduce training time. Research into the effectiveness of training technologies and how these impact pilot performance and workload is key to future growth. One such technology under review at the University of Birmingham is the ‘audible intelligent assistant’. This artificial voice that provides real-time feedback to the pilot during flight training. The system provides warnings, cautions and instruction to the human pilot to enhance pilot training. Preliminary results of the research showed an improvement in pilot performance against a specified set of target parameters of airspeed and altitude and a corresponding decrease in workload for 80% of pilots when using the audible intelligent assistant. Without AIA, pilot performance improved by 35% due to learning effects alone, with AIA pilot performance showed an improvement of 65%. |
Evaluation of Loadings in Head-Cervical-Thoracic Region for a Parameterized Aircraft Seat Backrest with Different Headrest Designs
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Author Xianzhi Zhong, Yuezhi Liu, Obidah Alawneh, Reza Faieghi & Fengfeng Xi |
| Abstract The contact loading and pressure distribution on the back are important measures to assess the comfort of a seat's backrest. On the other hand, the backrest design also influences the pressure on the back. Limited studies show how the variation on the backrest affects the loadings to the back surface, especially for the upper trunk region of the human body. In this study, a parameterized backrest model with the back support and headrest combined is created to describe design variations with different headrests. This study uses a 3D multibody model to evaluate the loadings and predict the pressure to analyze the headrest design's influences on the loading and pressure within the head-cervical-thoracic region. As a result, the headrest variation based on the parameterized model impacts the supportive load on the head. Within the thoracic region, the upper part is more sensitive to the change of design and sitting condition than the lower part. Different designs also affect the location of higher-pressure areas. The pros and cons of the analyzed designs are discussed. This study provides an example of assessing the design using the proposed load and pressure prediction method for the backrest. |
Sleep quality and (dis)comfort in a minimal space envelope
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Author Maxim Smulders & Peter Vink |
| Abstract Sleep facilities in vehicles often have a limited space due to economic and/or operational reasons. Currently no guidelines exist on minimal sleep space envelopes for qualitative, effective and comfortable sleep. This study aims to preliminary investigate the influence of a 2D minimal space envelope on sleep quality, sleep effectiveness and (dis)comfort, in order to work towards such guidelines. Forty-one participants slept in three different conditions: night 1) in their normal bed space, night 2) in a limited space (170 x 70 cm), and night 3) in a minimal space designed by the participant. Night 2 was rated significantly least comfortable and most discomfortable, where night 1 in the own bed was rated as most comfortable and least discomfortable. Sleep quality and sleep effectiveness were rated worst in the limited space (night 2), which had a 30% space reduction relative to an average one person bed. However no significant difference in sleep quality and sleep effectiveness between the own bed (night 1) and the minimal space designed by the participant (night 3) were found, although space on average was reduced by 25%. This indicates that tweaking the dimensions of the reduced sleep space envelope can increase sleep quality, sleep effectiveness and comfort. Further research on minimal space envelope design (non-rectangular and 3D) and its influence on sleep quality and efficiency, and (dis)comfort is needed, in which sleep behaviour, sleeping postures and movement, and anthropometrics should also be taken into account. |
Limiting Anthropometric Criteria for Medical Staff when Undertaking Aeromedical Operations in Rotary Wing Aircraft
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Author Karl J. Rich, Joy Ho & Cameron Edgar |
| Abstract New South Wales (NSW) Ambulance Aeromedical Operations Division (AOD) is standardising helicopter types with increased reliance on the Leonardo AW139. The AW139 has specified limits for the height and weight of medical crew (doctors and paramedics) when harnessed to the front and rear anchor points within the helicopter, and specified limits for the combined weight of medical crew, patients and equipment during stretcher winching operations. An anthropometric analysis was conducted to provide guidance on the height and weight ranges applicable to crew members based on the limitations of three system components: cabin seated height, hardpoint limit and winch limits (during stretcher winching operations). It was determined that seated height is a key dimension that would limit crew ability to interact with the cabin, this was at 935mm with helmet, clothing and seat depression correction factors included. This corresponds to 91st%ile Australian male seated height and 99th%ile Australian female seated height. Therefore, most of the Australian population should be able to sit in the cabin based on this dimension. In the analysis, hardpoint and winch weight limitations do not exclude a significant portion of the Australian population (e.g., 3% of males with a hardpoint weight limit of 130kg). However, it was found that the higher the weight of the crew member, the lower the weight of the patient that can be safely winched, especially when winching occurs below 0°C. Tables were developed to illustrate the effect of the limitations of system components on crew weight. It is concluded that the interaction of the analysed system component with patient weight would be key in understanding applicable crew height and weight ranges. It is recommended that seated height be formalised as an initial guidance, followed by ensuring crew understand the interrelationship between the safe working load on the hardpoint, weight on the winch and patient weight. This presented a good opportunity for NSW Ambulance AOD to integrate calculations of system component limits into formalised training. The operational context and general health/fitness to fly would also need to be considered for effective aeromedical operations. |
Air travel during pandemic context: Designing for a better Economy Class flight experience
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Author Rosa Tão-Lindo & José Rui Marcelino |
| Abstract This work focuses on the aeronautical industry during the pandemic context experienced recently. The Economy Class represents the largest capacity for carrying passengers. Therefore, the challenge of improving physical comfort and safety in this place is the goal of this project. The world of air travel has been under threat since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and may never be the same again. The idea of spending time inside a closed aircraft with low social distance is not pleasant. Flying in this context is undeniably hard, taking into account all the understandable ambiguity and stress surrounding passenger’s health and safety. Hence, the mission to redefine what travel can and should be in this new era is born. The following investigation gives rise to a proposal that aims to reduce the infection’s possibility on board. After approaching the knowledge through state of the art, surveys were structured, supported by direct and indirect posture and behavior observation inside the airplane. Based on the first inquiry results were made some concept proposals. Later, the previous concepts gave rise to study models and then, to prototypes that allowed a real project validation. The objects were first tested by a virtual survey, then in a physical seat in isolation, and finally during an actual flight context. Based on the results of this mixed, interventionist, and non-interventionist methodology of quantitative character, the author designed two iterations and a set of future search recommendations. The investigation results were considered conclusive. From a theoretical context, it was possible to identify a design work opportunity for this sector, supported by the first inquiry – which argues that there are ergonomic needs and that safety feeling is relatively low. Regarding the practical component, it was possible to verify an increase in comfort level using the proposed product compared to the original airplane seat. For future research, the inflatable materials exploration, systems with memory foam, and reactive using fabrics would contribute to the project enrichment. |
Linking Hierarchical Task Analysis to good practices
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Author Colin G. Drury, Catherine Drury Barnes |
| Abstract Hierarchical Task Analysis is one of the better-known tools for Ergonomics / Human Factors: here it is employed as a step between data collection and the production of Good Practice for industry. The specific example used in this paper is non-destructive inspection in aviation. For the continued airworthiness of civil aircraft, regular inspections are required to ensure that defects do not develop to potentially dangerous levels. These inspections use a variety of technologies all of which require both the human and the technology to function reliably. In this study seven inspection technologies were analysed using this methodology to produce good practices usable directly by the aviation industry. One specific technology is used as an exemplar. Each good practice derives from a consideration of the success/failure of a specific step in the task. In addition to providing the good practices, this work includes details on why these practices are indeed good as a further aid to usability. Finally, the good practices formed the basis for audit checklists for self-checking of implementations of the technologies. |
Urban Mobility: Airtaxi Cabin from a Passengers Point of View
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Author Ivana Moerland-Masic, Fabian Reimer, Maria Stolz, Thomas-Matthias Bock |
| Abstract Within German Aerospace Center (DLR), a project called HorizonUAM was launched in July 2020. Its main goal is to develop and design an aerial vehicle which would support the infrastructure of the ever-growing cities and strengthening the connection between as well the big cities as cities with their suburban areas. The vehicle will be designed for the four different scenarios: airport shuttle, intracity transport, intercity transport and suburban connection. This paper shows the research concerning the potential users of the vehicle including their requirements and shows a possible design solution for an airtaxi cabin. The process has followed the Design Thinking Method, ensuring a central role for the users. To determine whether there are potential passengers willing to use such a vehicle, in-depth research has been done. Data found in previously done research has been compared with results of the in-house research, consisting of a number of workshops with representatives of German population as well as results form questionnaires sent out to a different group of German population. During the workshops, the subjects were asked not only to indicate their opinion on the airtaxis, but also to create their own version of it. This was done following the so-called Disney method, creating the solution in three stages: dreamer, realist and critic. Based on this data, different fictive personas are created, to aid in understanding of the user’s needs. In addition, trend analysis on how the urban mobility is developing, has also been executed. The state-of-the-art solutions available are analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses determined. The entire research has resulted in an extensive list of requirements for the design of the cabin. To address such a complex design challenge, a morphological chart has been created, systematically deconstructing the main function into subfunctions. This has been done by multiple workshops with a constant team. |
Exploring factors influencing visual comfort in an aircraft cabin
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Author Xinhe Yao, Yu Song & Peter Vink |
| Abstract Visual stimulus might influence comfort of passengers in air travel. For a better understanding of the visual comfort, it is crucial to identify the constructs of the visual stimulus in the cabin and the contributions of different elements. A two-step approach was adopted in this study where in the first step, several creative sessions were executed for exploring the effect of different elements in the cabin regarding their impact on visual comfort. To inspire the participants, all creative sessions were held in a Boeing 737 cabin where participants were free to explore and had an immersive experience. All identified elements in the creative session were collected and grouped to different categories, that is use as input for the second step, which is an online survey investigating a possible hierarchy of the impact of those categories of elements on visual comfort. Eight were summarized and the three most influential categories were lighting, colour and the space arrangement. These were significantly different from other categories, namely the seat shape, the pattern, the windows, accessories and existence of advertisements. Regarding the gender and the age of the participants, we did not find significant differences regarding the preferences. |
A participatory approach to helicopter user interface design
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Author David McNeish & Martin Maguire |
| Abstract The importance of involving users during user interface (UI) design activities is widely recognised however the nature of this involvement may vary significantly. This study investigated the benefits and challenges of applying Participatory Design (PD) during the development of helicopter UI. During the first phase, four helicopter design professionals were interviewed in order to understand their views on user involvement and current approaches. The second phase involved three helicopter test pilots and three human factors specialists participating in a PD workshop (based on design thinking) focussed on a helicopter UI design case study (the Automatic Flight Control System within a Royal Navy Merlin Mark 2). There was strong agreement from all the participants that user involvement is important and current approaches were described as mainly consultative. Benefits identified included a better understanding of the problem and context of use and therefore closer alignment of the design with user needs. The approach encouraged divergent thinking and benefitted from being multidisciplinary. Minor changes to the workshop format should be considered in order to minimise the risk of bias and make the best use of the participants’ time. This study developed a valuable approach to PD which is likely to be generalizable to other domains. |
Leaps and Shunts: Designing pilot decision aids on the flight deck using Rasmussen’s ladders
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Author Victoria A. Banks, Katherine L. Plant and Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract When designing a new pilot decision aid for the flight deck, it is important to understand ‘how’ pilots make decisions in abnormal operating scenarios so that we can ensure they are provided with appropriate support. This paper provides a decision ladder analysis of an aircraft engine oil leak using data collected from six commercial airline pilot interviews. Traditionally, decision-making models are used reactively as a means to explore why things go wrong. However, we explore whether these models can also be used prospectively. Our analysis yields a number of possible design implications for the design of a pilot decision aid on the flight deck. |
Exploring Air Traffic Controllers Rosters for Fatigue Risk Management
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Author Wen-Chin Li, Jingyi Zhang, Peter Kearney & Graham Braithwaite |
| Abstract Fatigue is an inevitable hazard in the provision of air traffic services as it has the potential to degrade human performance leading to safety occurrences, incidents or even accidents. Arranging work rosters properly could be an effective element of fatigue risk management. This research aims to investigate air traffic controllers’ sleepiness levels and the impact of the current roster matrix on fatigue. Fifty-seven qualified air traffic controllers participated in the current study. The results demonstrated that the compressed nature of the roster between shift-4 and shift-5 increased sleepiness levels by reducing preceding sleeping hours and accumulating circadian dysrhythmia. Furthermore, the last three hours (6th hour, 7th hour, and 8th hour) on the working position presented high fatigue levels due to the depletion of controllers’ mental and physical resources. Therefore, it is suggested that breaks should be taken between the 6th and 7th working hour to prevent controller from “burning out”, and switch shift-1 to shift-5 to mitigate the impacts of circadian dysrhythmia. |
A Human Performance Standard of Excellence for the Air Traffic Industry
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Author Barry KIRWAN, Neil MAY, Remi JOLY, Paul KROIS, Michaela SCHWARZ, Damien ARMENIS, Billy JOSEFSSON, Anne-ki CHAVEZ |
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Development of a Usability Evaluation Framework for the flight deck
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Author Victoria A. Banks, Katherine L. Plant & Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract Systems design is often criticised for bringing human factors (HF) expertise into the design process at the end of a product’s development – often too late to have much impact on the design and usability of products and/or systems. This paper proposes a new Usability Evaluation Framework for the Flight Deck that can utilise HF expertise throughout the design lifecycle. It incorporates widely accepted design practices with a more user-centred approach that enables simultaneous usability testing and evaluation at every stage of the design lifecycle. |
Safety Risk Attitudes in Commercial Aviation
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Author Johnny Short, Eric Tchouamou Njoya & Nick Hubbard |
| Abstract The commercial aviation industry is a human-built and human-led system. Hazards are identified, assessed and managed by people. Perceptual dissonance induces inherent subjectivity, and this has the potential to reduce the efficacy of safety risk management. Whilst perception is a key driver of risk attitudes, evidence to show the impact of their proactive management is limited. This case study aims to demonstrate the rationale for further research. |
Chaise Longue: Passenger perception of more spacious economy class seats in the same pitch
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Author Alejandro Nuñez Vicente, Wolf Song & Peter Vink |
| Abstract Usually, the economy class has limited space and limited recline possibilities causing discomfort, especially on long haul flights. In this paper, a seat was developed creating more space by using the vertical space in the aircraft. The design is described and 59% preferred this seat based on visual impression, which is promising. Further prototyping, certification studies and manufacturability research is needed to check the feasibility further. |
Passengers’ Requirements for developing a Passenger-Centred Infrastructure to Enhance Travel Experiences at Airports
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Author Genovefa KEFALIDOU1, Mirabelle D’CRUZ1, Sarah SHARPLES, Christine De LILLE, Nikos FRANGAKIS, Richard OTTENS, Ronald GROSMANN, Rui MARCELINO, Klaus LÜTJENS, Sonja LÖWA, Eddie SHAW, Antonello NARDINI, and Sicco SANTEMA |
| Abstract PASSME (Personalised Airport Systems for Seamless Mobility and Experience) is an EU-Horizon 2020-funded project focusing on enhancing passengers experience at airports while reducing air travel time, through optimising interiors, luggage flow and offering real-time personalised information. We identified current processes, interactions and needs passengers and airport services experience while travelling. We employed mobile diary surveys on-the-go followed by semi-structured interviews to unpack journey trails and contextual information that influence passengers’ experiences while at airport(s) and on board. Passenger experiences are multi-factorial while at airport(s) and during their journey demonstrating a strong need for trust, situation awareness and prompt information provision. |
Usable and Interpretable Human-Swarm Visualisations: A User Evaluation Study
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Author Jediah R. Clark, Mohammad Divband Soorati & Sarvapali D. Ramchurn |
| Abstract In the field of swarm robotics, human factors research is deficient. Human-swarm interaction, the process in which humans work with collections of unmanned and autonomous aerial vehicles (UAVs) to conduct activities, require an operator to track and manage vast numbers of robotic agents. Due to increasing complexity in communication requirements, visualising a swarm is challenging and requires usable visualisation methods that do not detract from user-interpretability and swarm transparency. This study explores two initial swarm-displays for swarm geographical coverage and density – an individual point display, and a heatmap display. 100 users viewed a simulation of each display, provided subjective usability and acceptance ratings, and gave their display preferences related to eight contextual factors related to time constraints, swarm size, communication-constrained environments, displaying coverage and motion, time-criticality, error detection and transparency. It was found that heatmaps improved usability and acceptance, and were preferred for displaying coverage and motion, and when UAV numbers are high or when time is limited. Individual point displays, although being overall less usable, acceptable, and preferable, were still deemed as being a useful tool for detecting errors in swarm operation. It is therefore concluded that aggregated data displays are a promising display method for visualising swarm coverage and density. The study is limited due to participants not being able to interact with the displays, therefore further research is required to further test the effects reported in this study. |
Design with intent on the flight deck
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Author Victoria A. Banks, Katie J. Parnell, Katherine L. Plant & Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract New flight deck technologies must be carefully integrated to ensure that the demands of the system match the capabilities of the user. However, as technological advances make technologies more efficient, end users become the increasingly weak link within the chain. With this in mind, it is important that manufacturers take the time to acknowledge Human Factors within the design process and utilise opportunities to engage with actual end users, in this case line pilots. This article focuses on the design and development of a new pilot decision aid that can offer flight crews with relevant information regarding the status of the aircraft during abnormal operating procedures (e.g. following an indication of an engine oil leak). It utilises the Design with Intent method to generate novel design concepts for a new flight deck interface. This is a new method to apply to the domain but holds the potential to incorporate extensive feedback from pilots into the design of new technologies in the flight deck. Preliminary findings from workshops with pilots using this method are discussed with examples taken from the workshop on how the method can inform design concepts. Overall the method was found to generate important key areas of discussion that can be utilised in a user-centred design approach within future flight deck technology development. |
From education and training to the workplace: Gaps and challenges in aviation
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Author Jason Gauci, John De Carlo, Alessia Golfetti, Paola Tomasello, Linda Napoletano, Uğur Turhan, Suat Uslu, Birsen Yörük, Musa Güngören, Joao Gomes-Mota, Nadine Matton, Elpidio Romano, Sabrina Feletig, Daniela Geraldes, Filipa Manaia, Maria Macedo, Ana Ribeiro & Fabrice Drogoul |
| Abstract The aviation sector is constantly evolving, and it is necessary to keep training and education methods and programmes aligned with the needs of the workplace. This paper presents and discusses the results of a multinational study which was carried with 204 participants to analyse the transition from education and training to the workplace. The study was carried out by means of an online survey and structured interviews and focused on four groups of Vocational Education and Training users (flight crew, air traffic controllers, airport operators and Unmanned Aircraft System operators) and three target groups (employees, employers and external training providers). The results of the study highlight gaps in training and education; frequently encountered challenges in the workplace; changes which are expected to occur in the future workplace; and the impact of those changes on jobs and roles. These results will be used to identify new job profiles and to design study pathways, training programmes and assessment tools for the future aviation workforce. |
Flight Operations as a System of Networks: A Sociotechnical Approach
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Author Neville A STANTON, Katherine L PLANT, Kirsten M A REVELL, Thomas G C GRIFFIN, Scott MOFFATT and Maggie J STANTON |
| Abstract The study reported in this paper used the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method to examine aviation operations from multiple perspectives (Dispatch, ATC/ATM, Maintenance, Loading, and the Cockpit). These networks were created for five key phases of flight: (i) crew briefing, (ii) preflight checks and engines start (iii) taxi and take-off, (iv) descent and landing, and (v) taxi, park and shutdown. The networks have been produced as an ‘information audit’ in order to understand the interactions and connections within the current system. |
The Air Traffic Kludge
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Author Hugh DAVID |
| Abstract Air Traffic is a ‘Kludge’. Antiquated methods are linked to state-of-the-art devices, and ‘work-arounds’ devised to keep going. There has never been a systematic analysis of Air Traffic as a whole. Analysis shows that the archaic controller-aircrew link is the weakest link in the system. The answer, however, is not to introduce specific technical innovations, but to examine the system as a whole, and to use knowledge of human (and computer) capacities to provide a safe, humane and economic solution. |
Soma design to enhance aircraft passenger comfort
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Author Mahnaz Sharafkhani, Paul Tennen2, Elizabeth Argyle & Sue Cobb |
| Abstract Aircraft passengers can become uncomfortable while seated because of the restricted physical space. This work aims to investigate a new strategy for designing interventions that can be used to encourage aircraft passengers to move more while seated and thus to improve their perceived level of comfort. We discuss the utility of applying the ‘soma design’ methodology to creating these interventions, which aim to target specific body discomfort areas identified in a previous study. In this paper, we report on a series of design activities to address this challenge. |
The Development and Testing of a Semi-Automated Hierarchical Task Analysis Process
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Author Katherine L PLANT, Neville A STANTON, Loukas RENTZOS, Charalampos VOURTSIS, Stratos ANTONIOU and Konstantinos SMPAROUNIS |
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Psychophysiological coherence training reduces pilots’ perceived stress in flight operations
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Author Laurie Marsman, Jingyi Zhang & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract The present paper reports the results of a four-week study assessing the relationship between psychophysiological coherence training, which aims to improve the synchronisation between one’s physiological rhythms leading to a positive emotional state, and perceived stress levels in commercial air transport pilots. Next to three self-report stress questionnaire measurements, qualitative data were gathered as well to gain more insights into the training effects. Results show significant reductions in the flight crew’s perceived stress levels during the four-week psychophysiological coherence practice period. Finally, the results are discussed. |
Development of physical discomfort of airline pilots during prolonged sitting
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Author P Vink, S Anjani, M Netten, H de Ree, A de Haan & Y Song |
| Abstract Discomfort was recorded by 26 airline pilots during flight. Thirteen reported their discomfort during a long haul flight and 13 completed the questionnaires during short haul flights. Discomfort values increased with time to high values, but with a modest decrease towards the end of the flight. Most discomfort was reported in the low back area. For the short haul flights upper back values were high and for long haul flights the buttock showed high values. |
The Impact of Wearing Facemasks on Pilot Non-Technical Skills During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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Author Craig M Kerr & Jim Nixon |
| Abstract Masks on the flight deck are a part of an overarching biosecurity strategy intended to keep aircrew safe during the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of this research was to explore pilot perception of the impact of mask wearing on non-technical skills. Four key non-technical skill areas were identified: communication, situational awareness, task management and decision making. Flight-crew perception on how mask wearing affects these skills was captured using a questionnaire. In addition, overall pilot attitude to mask wearing was captured concurrently. Sixty-two pilots with a variety of experience and backgrounds participated in the research. Analysis revealed communication to be a skill heavily impacted by facemasks. Results also align with the IATA risk assessment suggesting facemasks increase the time taken to don oxygen masks in the event of rapid depressurisation. The burden associated with flying whilst wearing masks also became evident. Flight-crew report increased feelings of fatigue when wearing masks, impacts upon crew resource management and performance. Overall, findings suggest that masks impact non-technical skills and subsequently crew resource management. These findings indicate that mask wearing might adversely affect flight safety. These findings should be considered when decisions are made to implement mask wearing in the cockpit. |
Augmented Design with Voice Recognition and Auditory Alerts in the Flight Deck
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Author Niall Miranda, Jean-Baptiste Bonotaux & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract Devices using voice recognition and verbal auditory alerts have advanced rapidly in the modern world. In an era that drives the world using voice commands, aviation has lagged to implement this technology in cockpits. Contrary to the rapid pace of advancements in cockpit instruments, auditory alerts have also been largely primitive. With such technologies gaining rapid acceptance in many industries, it is about time to consider adopting the same in cockpits, especially to support pilots during enhanced operational workload. This paper conducts a use case study on the prevailing aural technologies in the cockpit whilst exploring the augmentation of contemporary technologies in voice recognition and verbal auditory alerts to aid pilots’ cognition and reduce mental workload. |
User-centred design and evaluation of future flight deck technologies
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Author Katie J. Parnell, Rachael A. Wynne, Katherine L. Plant, Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract This work presents an overview of the Human Factors methodologies, and applications thereof, that can be utilised across the design lifecycle of new technologies entering future commercial aircrafts. As advances are made to the architecture of commercial aircraft cockpits, it is vitally important that these new interfaces are safely incorporated and designed in a way that is usable to the pilot. Incorporation of Human Factors is essential to ensuring that engineering developments to avionic systems are integrated such that pilots can maintain safe interactions, while gaining information of value. Taking work from previous research studies, a case study example of technological advancements during its early conceptual stages is presented. This shows how different methods and processes can be applied and combined to ensure that the user is included within the design and evaluation of new flight deck technologies. |
Point Merge: Increasing Human-System Integration in Air Traffic Management
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Author Shane Kenny & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract Through consideration of human-system integration (HSI) during airspace design, ATCOs who operate in a Point Merge environment can benefit from increased situational awareness, reduced workload and increased performance levels (Eurocontrol, 2021). This short paper outlines the advantages of implementing Point Merge operations to increase ATM safety, by considering the role of the ATCO and the importance of HSI when implementing air traffic control procedures. |
A parametric investigation of preferred pressure distribution on both seat pan and backrest cushions
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Author Xuguang Wang, Léo Savonnet , Georges Beurier & Jean Marc Obadia |
| Abstract The present work aimed to investigate the preferred pressure distribution on both seat pan and backrest cushions using a reconfigurable experimental seat and 12 inflatable air cushions. Thirty-seven male and female volunteers participated in the experiment covering a large range of variation in stature (1.51 to 1.9 m) and BMI (18.6 to 43.8 kg/m²). Twelve seating configurations were defined by the combination of 4 back angles (10°; 20°, 30° and 40° from the vertical) and 3 seat pan angles (self-selected from an initial angle of 0°, from an initial angle of 25° and the average of the two previously selected angles). Self-selected pressure distributions were highly dependent on both anthropometric and seat parameters, even for the relative pressure proportion. Results suggest that there is no unique ‘ideal’ pressure distribution for all sitters and all seats. The parametric models from the present study will be useful for optimising cushion design. |