The following papers have been published by CIEHF in Contemporary Ergonomics & Human Factors 2019, Eds R Charles & D Golightly, ISBN 978-1-9996527-1-5
Contemporary EHF 2019
Persona-Technology footprint: an evaluation of 144 student’s perceptions of a person using assistive technology
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Author George Torrens, Ian Storer Salman Asghar Ruth Welsh & Karl Hurn |
| Abstract The persona-technology footprint is the visual balance between the enabling technologies associated with an individual and the person. This design heuristic enables a practitioner to quickly assess the area of visible technology compared with that of the person. The objective of a designer is to minimise the perceived technology and emphasise the personality of the individual. This study looks to provide detail about the visual balance between areas of a person covered by assistive technology and which areas of a person it is important to ensure are visible. A survey of 144 undergraduate design students involved them choosing where they considered they no longer saw ‘the person’, due to them being covered by assistive technology. This involved three different line drawings: one that had different sections of the person’s profile blacked out to represent the presence of equipment in front of the person; the second with the outer profile of the person visually broken by the overlapping blacked section; and, a line drawing of a person’s head with blacked out sections that both covered areas of the head and broke the outer profile. The points chosen by students were collated and processed statistically using ANOVA. In all three choices, students chose the point where the person was covered up to the point of their eyes being covered. This suggests we view another person’s eyes to represent them more than any other part of their body. Further studies are required to explore this outcome. |
Applying nudge to organisational communications: nudge and source impact on e-learning completion
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Author Ami Chohan, Dr. Ann Bicknell, C.Psychol. |
| Abstract Nudge and its application to decision-making and behavioural change, continues to gain increasing academic and mainstream interest. Mandatory e-learning is now a vehicle which delivers many core and business critical skills including legal compliance with safety and security. In addition, the ‘just in time’ nature of an efficient business requires that employees receive business learning for sales and service offerings as close to the point of use as possible, without limit of geography and supporting learner inclusivity and we have seen a drop in lengthy induction and training courses. It is disappointing then, that the claims made for digital learning procurement are rarely matched by the uptake or measurable transfer from it. There is substantial empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of nudge intervention in the public and domestic domain. However, little attention has focused on its application to the workplace and even less so, in instances where behavioural change is not linked to clear personal reward. This study quantitatively explored whether nudge application and source of communication influenced the probability of employees completing an optional e-learning module. Two hundred and sixty-five employees at a major UK transport organisation were exposed to one of six versions of an email stimulus manipulated by source and nudge application. Third Person Effect, a phenomenon where individuals believe others are more likely to be influenced by mass media communication than themselves, was identified as a potential co-variate. A binomial logistical regression identified ‘nudge, expert source’ and ‘no nudge, authority source’ to be statistically significant predictors for e-learning completion. Findings suggest that information disclosure nudges introduced by an expert source can support organisations in encouraging employees to engage with optional work-based activity where no clear personal reward is identifiable. Non-nudged organisational communications from an authority source are better predictors to encourage compliance driven decision-making and behaviour change. |
Occupant psychological wellbeing and environmental satisfaction after an open-plan office redesign
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Author Jennifer Langer, Andrew Smith & Jim Taylour |
| Abstract Open-plan office layouts are commonly used due to perceived economic benefits; however, studies have shown negative occupant wellbeing outcomes associated with this office type. A recent trend in open-plan office design is activity-based, or agile working, which has been associated with positive occupant outcomes. Open-plan offices can vary in features and design, and the present study explored how improving occupants' environment may affect their psychological wellbeing. This case study investigated changes in office workers' environmental satisfaction and psychological wellbeing outcomes after their agile working, open-plan office was redesigned. Environmental satisfaction of occupants increased significantly after the office redesign by 31%, and nine out of 11 environmental satisfaction items were rated significantly higher. After the redesign, occupants reported significantly less control over their job and support from colleagues, and significantly more often feeling anxious or depressed because of work. There were no significant changes in other aspects of psychological wellbeing measured (job demands, stress at work, job satisfaction, fatigue, job performance, life / work balance, and happiness at work). At the time of the post office design measures, there were some changes occurring in the office due to company expansion, which may have affected the results. This study suggests that increased environmental satisfaction alone, may be insufficient to improve employees' psychological wellbeing, and other factors, such as work demands and stressors, need to be considered. |
Building risk matrices from interview transcripts utilising HCA and IPA
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Author Megan Field |
| Abstract This paper proposes a methodological guideline for analysing interview transcripts to aid in the construction of risk matrices. This is to allow for the tabulation of qualitative data in a suitable manner as to provide appropriate qualitatively informed recommendations. Using this methodology, a comprehensive and qualitatively supported table to register concerns, priority and/or urgency of themes is created that can address inter- and intra- actor factors in socio-technical systems. The analysis aims to communicate the in-depth, rich data of narrative inquiry in verbal protocols to more technical or quantitative domains. |
An Ergonomic Assessment of Small Boat Lobster Fishing
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Author Ashley Duguid & Helen Vosper |
| Abstract Fishing is a high-risk occupation: one of these risks is the high frequency of work-related musculoskeletal injury. While the industry is regulated world-wide, the safety focus is on larger fishing vessels, which is significant given that the vast majority of commercial fishing is carried out by crews using smaller vessels. There is also very little research investigating the impact of such activity on the health and wellbeing of small boat fishers. Given that such operations are less industrialised and involve strenuous physical labour over long hours, this area deserves further study. This paper describes a case study of small boat lobster fishing off the North East coast of Scotland. A flexible approach combined task and postural analysis with qualitative data, identifying task elements posing particular risks to musculoskeletal health and suggesting strategies for risk reduction. |
Designing Smart Motorways
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Author Nic Bowler |
| Abstract The AmeyArup collaborative design team were commissioned by Highways England to design two new Smart Motorways schemes on the M1 motorway between junctions 13-16 and 23a-25. The human factors (HF) team from Arup proved the value that could be added to the final product early in the project tender and scoping phases, including the added benefit of helping Highways England achieve their strategic aims of improved customer experience, road user safety and service delivery. This led to HF professionals being included in a smart motorways design team for the first time. As the application of a HF approach was novel to smart motorways design, there was little direction or standards to follow for its integration into the design process. The HF team had to explore methods of integrating with the variety of design disciplines and immersed themselves in various relevant design meetings. The team applied a user-centred approach to the design of all infrastructure and assets requiring human interaction. This involved ensuring the needs of all users - including customers, operators and maintainers - were considered at the beginning of the design process and that these groups were consulted during design development. The aim was to ensure the new smart motorway met user needs and enabled them to carry out their intended actions safely. The HF team identified 125 issues that were progressed to closure and accommodated 114 user-specified requirements in the designs. |
Physical employment standards for security officers enhances operational effectiveness and reduces sickness absence
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Author Mark P Rayson & Nick Bennett |
| Abstract This project’s objectives were to develop and implement Physical Employment Standards for Security Officers employed on a large private estate. Implementation of Physical Employment Standards should improve the match between the physical capability of staff with the physical requirements of the job, improving operational effectiveness and enhancing health and safety. The Security industry has been slow to adopt Physical Employment Standards. A multi-stage process that followed best practice was adopted. Initially, criterion tasks were defined – key physical tasks that all operational Security Officers must undertake effectively and safely. These criterion tasks represented reasonable worst-case scenarios requiring capability in aerobic fitness, anaerobic endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and mobility. A series of physical task-based tests, simulating the criterion tasks were developed. Several pilot studies followed enabling the collection of normative data and the opinions of staff on the relevance of the tests and potential test standards. The Security Officers endorsed the tests, rating each test as ‘fairly’ or ‘strongly’ reflecting the physical demands of key tasks. Three sources of evidence were triangulated to produce the final set of tests and standards – subject matter expert opinion, Security Officer opinion and normative test scores. The tests and standards comprised a Horizontal Walk in 12 minutes, a Stair Ascent in 45 seconds, a Manual Handling task in 9 minutes, and a Stair Descent in 20 minutes 30 seconds. An implementation process is presented. Early evidence suggests positive outcomes from the adoption of Physical Employment Standards in staff capability, reduced sickness absence, and financial benefits to the organisation. |
Exploring the complexities of cane rail operations in Tropical Far North Queensland
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Author Anjum Naweed, Matthew JW Thomas, Janine Chapman and Jason Hajinakitas |
| Abstract Rail-based transportation is the backbone of agriculture in the raw sugar supply chain. A high-pressured industry, rail-based service delivery corresponds with mill productivity, but the nature of this environment renders it prone to derailment and conflicting moves. Despite the pace at which cane operations are evolving to accommodate rising industry growth, there is little to no published literature of the human factors in cane rail operations, or a common understanding of how the peculiarities in this system impact risk and the way that drivers work. A total of five focus groups were conducted with locomotive crew (n = 19) from an organisation in tropical Far North Queensland. Data was collected using a scenario-based technique which involved the creation of challenging everyday scenarios. Data analysis examined features of challenging scenarios, and specific categories of risk. Preliminary results illustrate cane-rail operations as a highly complex, dynamic and opaque system with a myriad of inherent risks that make the work undertaken by locomotive crew particularly challenging. Future research directions are given. |
Can stature be predicted from fingerprint characteristics? Regression analysis of 200 participants
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Author Beth McMurchie, George Torrens Paul Kelly |
| Abstract The study described in this report was part of a long-running programme to collect data of people’s physical characteristics and their relationship with the interfaces through which they control their environment. The study aimed to establish if there is a correlation between fingerprints and stature, possibly providing a quick method of identifying the physical characteristics of an individual from a latent fingerprint. The aim of the specific study documented here was to define the relationship, and its significance between a latent fingerprint and the height and/or weight of the individual who deposited it. A standardised fingerprint from 200 participants (117 males, 83 females) was collected using a bespoke finger compliance meter, which applied a fixed force of 10N to each participant’s fingertip and captured an image of the compressed print. Measurements of height and weight were also taken. Regression analysis was used to analyse the collected measurements. Whilst the results of regression analysis showed very little correlation between weight and fingerprint size, a significant (p < 0.05) correlation coefficient (r = 0.61) was established between height and fingerprint circumference. The post-processed results provided a formula for estimation of height from fingerprint size; a standard error value of ±15 cm for predicted height from a given print; and, an indication as to the viability of this form of biometric analysis applied in the field of forensic identification. The results contribute to the evidence already published about the correlations between body parts and stature. |
An exploratory focus group study of factors influencing helicopter pilots’ Non-Technical Skills
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Author O. Hamlet, A. Irwin, R. Flin, & G. Thomson |
| Abstract Non-technical skills are the interpersonal and cognitive skills that promote effective performance alongside a pra2ctitioner’s technical abilities in their working environment. Whilst helicopter pilots are trained and assessed in non-technical skills, there is a lack of encompassing research assessing the factors which influence these skills as a whole. The current study aimed to report and compare factors which influenced the utilisation of non-technical skills across two pilot groups; search and rescue and offshore transport. Fifteen semi-structured focus group sessions were undertaken (n=8 offshore transport, n=7 search and rescue) where pilots were asked a series of open-ended questions centred around factors that influenced their non-technical skill utilisation. Focus group analysis was conducted by way of inductive thematic analysis to identify and compare factors. Workload, stress, individual influences, crew interaction/composition, environmental influences, changes and the status of other non-technical skills were identified as overarching factors which influenced the utilisation of pilots’ non-technical skills. Each factor consisted of a range of specific elements. While there was no variation between pilots on a factor level (e.g. workload), there was significant variation on the elemental level (e.g. too high a workload for offshore transport vs. not having all relevant mission information for search and rescue). The results indicate that while there are similarities in the overarching factors that affect non-technical skill utilisation, variations exist on the elemental level. Non-technical skills training, therefore, should be adapted for specific mission types and focused around role specific elements. |
The impact of interaction mechanisms with in-vehicle touch screens on task performance
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Author Ayse Leyla Crossland, Gary Burnett, David R Large, Catherine Harvey |
| Abstract Although they provide a better driving experience, the developments within in-vehicle technologies also raise concern due to their contribution to driver distraction. Especially the introduction of in-vehicle touch screens has the potential to increase visual demand by the in vehicle information system (IVIS). It is crucial to conduct research to identify different ways for drivers to interact with in-vehicle displays in order to decrease the visual demand placed on the driver. The driving simulator study discussed in this paper aimed to investigate the effects of driving complexity (stationary, simple, complex) and different interaction mechanisms (foveal vision, peripheral vision, muscle memory) with in-vehicle touch screens on a secondary task, driving performance and NASA TLX scores. The results showed driving complexity had no significant effect on secondary task and driving performance. However, button selection task time and error rates were significantly higher during muscle memory conditions compared to peripheral and foveal vision conditions. Conversely, foveal and peripheral vision had a negative impact on driving performance unlike muscle memory conditions. Overall, this study highlighted the similarities between foveal and peripheral vision but also the potential to encourage drivers to keep their eyes on the road by considering peripheral vision as an interaction mechanism when designing in-vehicle touch screens. |
Incident Reduction Programme: Nottingham Rail Station
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Author Paul Davison |
| Abstract This project involves the investigation, analysis and resolution of train dispatch incidents at Nottingham rail station. The project’s main goal was to reduce the number of incidents and introduce a Non-Technical Skills competency framework. The analysis of questionnaires, workshops, observations, documentation and discussions showed a confused train dispatch process, and highlighted dysfunction in and between teams. Therefore, a back to basics principle guided the redesign of both the technical and non-technical aspects of the competency framework; aimed to deliver safe, on time dispatches that provided positive customer experiences. This resulted in the design of a dispatch safety bubble containing multiple layers of defence. Additionally, a Fair Culture shift required a change in error orientation, resulting in the understanding that dispatch failures only occur in technical skills. The complimentary non-technical skills are neither right nor wrong, they are only underdeveloped. The lack of a non-technical skill then manifests itself within a technical failure, which may result in an incident. This mindset also shifted the use of investigations to establishing understanding and make recommendations to prevent future recurrence for similarly qualified and experienced personnel. These mindsets required staff to adopt a coaching style for training, assessments and professional discussions. The project and change in mindsets created engagement from and between the staff. At project start, Nottingham station experienced an average of two incidents per week, by project conclusion this had reduced to two per month. The reduction in incidents has lowered the likelihood of injuries and loss of life and saved hundreds of thousands of pounds in costs and fines, whilst reducing the chance of a catastrophic event. |
Moving the needle on Safety Culture: Facilitating transformation
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Author Dr. Ann Bicknell, C.Psychol. & Dr. Mandana Kazem, IET |
| Abstract Safety culture remains one of the most challenging and complex areas of culture change practice which is the approach behind this session. Our argument is that organisational culture with respect to safety most obviously exemplifies tensions between Safety as the ‘first priority’ and the many tasks that organisations must complete to achieve continuity and reasonable prosperity. Arup have learned that not only does working on Safety Culture require an appreciation of the butterfly effect in working with complexity, it requires genuine stamina on the part of change agents and programmes, most likely because our experience is that it exposes so many organisational challenges and reluctant stones that need turning over - for this reason we position Safety Culture as a ‘litmus test’ of organisational agility and integrity. But which stones and where? This case study shares some observations and provocative opines illustrated by examples of client data from our global client base together with our responses: including the launch of a Dynamic Systems Model and a set of Five Transformation Levers borne out of extensive and detailed client data and from projects with large infrastructure, construction, healthcare and aviation contexts. We also share our experiences of undertaking this journey in-house: some rather humility promoting moments, as well as intra-organisational reflections and our experiences of involvement in ‘best practice’ research seeking to move the needle on safety culture. Whilst the ISO, HSE, IOSH etc principles are reflected in our People and Change approach, the model involves discrete levers and an approach that can be shared to promote transformation. In a universe of potential safety foci, we propose a Dynamic Safety Systems Model to de-construct challenges and to create a defensible programme of work. We would like to use this session for peer review and developing our practice. |
Touchscreen usage with upper limb prostheses: initial explorations
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Author Phil Day, Elina Jokisuu, Maggie McKendry, Scott Edward, & Rami Abboud |
| Abstract This paper describes a formative investigation into the use of projected capacitive touchscreens with upper limb prostheses. A difference in performance was found between two types of touchscreen, and also between different varieties of prosthesis; although the methodology means that further study is required as the prostheses were held in a simulated contact rather than actually worn in a realistic manner. Even with these caveats, this early work demonstrates the potential problem that exists in using touchscreens with a prosthetic device, and explores some possible solution areas. |
We know why people fail to follow procedures: now on to interventions.
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Author Catherine Drury Barnes, Colin G. Drury |
| Abstract Procedure following is used in many safety-critical enterprises to help ensure that technically correct methods are used for many tasks. Despite this, Failure to Follow Procedures is cited as one of the prime causal or contributing factors in many incidents and accidents. This paper follows an earlier study of failure to follow procedures in aviation maintenance, by going beyond the literature and pre-existing accident/incident data bases to collect data from system participants in eight different maintenance sites. Interviews were conducted with 63 users of procedures, mainly aviation mechanics, who had experience with such incidents, and with 92 managers, supervisors and procedure writes whose job is to control the maintenance process. The users provided details of an incident, then noted whether each of 90 contributing factors played a part. The managers rated the 15 “good practices” from the literature and provided detailed narrative comments. Analysis of the data confirmed the earlier analyses, although with some dissociation. Based on the data a set of interventions was developed, with training programs and audit procedures for each human function within the maintenance system. While the interventions are specific to aviation maintenance, the general good practices and contributing factors validated here have obvious application in other domains. |
Minimum aperture transit in healthy adults of different size to predict egress capability
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Author Arthur Stewart, Alan Nevill & Christopher Johnson |
| Abstract Minimum aperture dimensions have traditionally been considered from an industrial perspective for facilitating safe confined-space working or emergency exit from transportation. However, secular trends for increased typical body size resulting from global obesity mean that clearance space is becoming diminished, and calls into question whether traditional assumptions of space provision are still appropriate. Although this observation has potentially far-reaching consequences for evacuation planning and safe work practices, no current literature describes the minimum frame apertures adults can successfully negotiate. As a result, this study aimed to determine minimum egress apertures in healthy adults of different body size. Forty-eight men and 40 women were recruited from the general public and university manual and academic staff and students. Each underwent anthropometric and 3D scanning assessments from which anatomical dimensions were extracted. A simulated egress task was performed by manipulating an adjustable frame vertically over participants, which was progressively narrowed until individuals failed to pass. Minimum transit aperture was predicted from anatomical variables using backwards elimination regression. This was best predicted from chest depth and bideltoid breadth, plus gender interactions with bicristal (hip) and bideltoid breadths. Passes and fails, discriminated using binary logistic regression, identified mass as the best predictor of success. Minimum egress apertures relate to body size and can be predicted from anatomical variables, however men and women display differences in egress capability which should be further investigated with a contemporary demographic in order to inform future guidelines and legislative change. |
Ergonomic constraints for astronauts: challenges and opportunities today and for the future
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Author Martin Braddock, Konrad Szocik & Riccardo Campa |
| Abstract Manned spaceflight is ergonomically constrained by living and working in a confined space in microgravity where astronauts on both short and long duration missions are exposed to daily radiation levels well above those received on Earth. Living in microgravity, especially on long duration missions aboard the International Space Station has deleterious physiological and psychological effects on astronaut health and astronauts may on just one mission receive exposure to a cumulative radiation dose normally received in a lifetime on Earth. It is unrealistic at present to contemplate continuous missions of greater than 1 year, and to mitigate against current ergonomic constraints, space agencies have outlined roadmaps to introduce artificial gravity and develop strategies for conferring human resistance to radiation. In parallel, the concept of whole brain emulation (WBE) and ‘uploading’ of human consciousness on to a platform within the rapidly growing field of artificial intelligence is one scenario which may remove the future requirement for a physical crew. This paper highlights incidents and accidents which have resulted in astronaut injury because of ergonomics in space, considers the timing of deployment of technology roadmaps and draws together multi-disciplinary fields to project a future whereby deep space travel may be manned by an e-crew, devoid of many of the established ergonomic boundaries that apply to human astronauts. |
Achieving a step change in route knowledge management
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Author Alice Monk, Charlotte Kaul, Huw Gibson, Aoife Finneran, Anisha Tailor |
| Abstract Route knowledge is the information required to predict, identify and interpret route specific cues to complete an operational railway task safely and effectively. Route knowledge in the rail industry is defined, trained and assessed in different ways at different companies and there was an opportunity to develop the Rail Industry Standard in this area to improve consistency. The objectives of this project were to review route learning processes within Great Britain and Europe, consider the implications of future technologies and define and validate a structured approach to route learning (the route story approach). The route story approach draws together a sequential list of route cues and details what the learner needs to know for each cue. It provides the minimum set of required route cues for safe operation and covers both route cue information and route risks for normal, degraded and emergency operations. This approach was tested in scientific trials with three train operating companies and case studies with a freight company and infrastructure contractor. The new approach was compared to existing approaches in terms of both usability and competence development. The trials indicated that the new approach is more usable than existing approaches and that it facilitates a more tailored approach to competence development, allowing companies to optimise their training time. The new approach has four key stages. 1. Define essential route cue types: a structured risk-based approach to determine essential route features 2) Create the route story. 3) Select materials/training formats and effectively assess competence. 4) regulate effectiveness of training processes. |
Human and organisational factors in cybersecurity: applying STAMP to explore vulnerabilities
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Author Andrew Wright, Gyuchan Thomas Jun |
| Abstract The human and organisational factors contributing to information security are still poorly understood, primarily due to a lack of research and absence of suitable techniques to assess complex digital systems. This paper presents the application of the System-Theoretic Accident Models and Process (STAMP) technique to the 2013/2014 Target Corporation data breach. The aims of the study are to investigate the causal factors using a systemic approach, and to demonstrate the benefits of the technique to information security applications. A number of critical control flaws were identified through the STAMP analysis include: i) poor external and internal communication/co-ordination of new threats and vulnerabilities; ii) inadequate learning from past events, internally and externally; iii) a lack of proactive security management to understand and learn from system successes and good practices as well as system failures; iv) ineffective management and co-ordination with the supply chain. |
Risk assessment of sharp edges in trains
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Author Suganth Rajendra Kumar |
| Abstract There is no clear definition in the UK rail industry for a sharp edge when it comes to non-rigid metallic edges such as sheet metal edges. In Bombardier Transportation UK, this was managed by a joint safety and human factors assessment to determine the level of risk posed by such edges to train users. An on-train subjective risk assessment was done based on three parameters; access, worst case scenarios and sharpness. This case study highlights the limitations of this approach by comparing it with an existing standard; the children’s product safety specification ‘Sharp Points and Sharp Edges’ (Code of Federal Regulations, 2018). Lessons have been learned from this comparison, which will feed into future process improvement. |
Validating ergonomics methods
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Author Neville A Stanton |
| Abstract This paper revisits the challenge laid down over 15 years ago, that Ergonomics needs to report on the reliability and validity of its methods if it is to maintain its standing amongst the Engineering community. Unfortunately, a review of books reporting on Ergonomics methods since that time shows very little change. The theoretical constructs of reliability and validity are presented together with the rationale for conducting studies of training in Ergonomics methods. Revisiting the original study shows the way in which such validation work can be undertaken and data reported. It is hoped that this article provides the stimulus for more studies of this nature. |
Human performance in rail: current assessment and future opportunities
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Author Abigail Fowler, Dr David Golightly, Prof Sarah Sharples, Dr Catherine Harvey, Dr Max L. Wilson, Dr Huw Gibson |
| Abstract Automated and assistive technologies are being introduced to the rail industry to support the tasks of drivers and signallers. As rail tasks become less physical and more cognitive, measurement of human performance and evaluation of the impact of these new technologies needs to evolve. As pressure to achieve high performance increases, the importance of understanding human performance limits also increases. This paper on human performance in rail is based on semi-structured interviews with operational and human factors specialists. The paper builds a ‘where are we now’ picture of current staff performance assessment in rail. It considers in addition ‘where could we go next?’ using developments in measurement technologies, such as physiological measures, and research in both Air Traffic Control (ATC) and automotive industries. A thematic analysis of interviews identified three key themes: people, time and attributes. Firstly, the performance of a wide range of people can impact rail operations, which highlights how complex a socio-technical system rail is. Secondly, staff assessment occurs at certain times in rail (recruitment selection, routine competency assessment and following an incident). Thirdly, beyond task competency, individual attributes can indicate good or poor human performance. Future opportunities include the increased use of logged data, physiological measures, and simulators, to improve our understanding of human performance in rail. An important consideration is how the data will be used and combined with wider competence and performance assessment processes. |
Eye Point of Gaze for object selection and weapon aiming
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Author Kerry Tatlock, Jacob Valducci & Debbie Risius |
| Abstract This paper provides details and considerations for evaluation of Eye Point Of Gaze technology for object designation and weapon aiming. It lists considerations for equipment, scenarios, measures and variables to be tested. It also describes the Eye Point Of Gaze and scenario presentation equipment in general detail. The results are presented and discussed. In general, Eye Point Of Gaze is proved to be advantageous for speed, and for tracking accuracy for moving objects. Traditional weapon aiming is shown to have higher accuracy levels at the point of object designation. |
Linking Hierarchical Task Analysis to good practices
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Author Colin G. Drury, Catherine Drury Barnes |
| Abstract Hierarchical Task Analysis is one of the better-known tools for Ergonomics / Human Factors: here it is employed as a step between data collection and the production of Good Practice for industry. The specific example used in this paper is non-destructive inspection in aviation. For the continued airworthiness of civil aircraft, regular inspections are required to ensure that defects do not develop to potentially dangerous levels. These inspections use a variety of technologies all of which require both the human and the technology to function reliably. In this study seven inspection technologies were analysed using this methodology to produce good practices usable directly by the aviation industry. One specific technology is used as an exemplar. Each good practice derives from a consideration of the success/failure of a specific step in the task. In addition to providing the good practices, this work includes details on why these practices are indeed good as a further aid to usability. Finally, the good practices formed the basis for audit checklists for self-checking of implementations of the technologies. |
Design of human-machine teams using a modified CoActive Design Method
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Author Professor Chris Baber, Chris Vance |
| Abstract Designing Human-Machine Teams not only requires an appreciation of which functions might be appropriately allocated to human or machine, but also how each team member can make sense of the functions performed by it and its team-mates. The aim of this paper is to present an approach to Allocation of Function within Human-Machine Teams (HuMaT) that can be applied across different Levels of Automation and which can explore information management issues in such teams. To do this, we present a modification of the CoActive Design method. A key aspect of the modification lies in the focus on information exchange and issues relating to common ground in HuMaT. In this paper, Cognitive Work Analysis is used as the basis for the CoActive Design Method to explore how different Levels of Automation can be conceptualised. The benefit of such an approach is that is provides a decomposition of functions such that it is possible to see how, even in systems that have high-levels of autonomy, there remains a role for human operators. Taking the example of an in-car navigation system, we illustrate how each member uses information to support the functions allocated to them, and how common ground develops in the team. |
Social camouflage: a survey of 143 students of their preference for assistive technology cutlery and the visual mechanisms being influenced
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Author George Torrens, Ian Storer, Salman Asghar, Ruth Welsh & Karl Hurn |
| Abstract Camouflage has been used extensively in modern military applications for over one hundred years. However, social camouflage has been used by artists and designers for even longer within clothing, body-worn accessories and more recently automotive and product design. Most practising designers learn this tacit heuristic through trial and error or passed on through master-student experience. This paper will provide the theoretical principles behind the heuristic and validate their application through evidence from different sources. A series of photographs was compiled of seven commercially available cutlery for people with limited grip strength or mobility in their hands that included a set that embodied the principles of social camouflage. The optimum shapes for grip in these sets highlights their unconventional shape, making them often less desirable to use in public. A survey of preferences for a range of cutlery was completed with 143 students using a semantic differential (SD) scale, with ‘least medical’ and ‘most medical’ as the polar nouns. A sample of eight students, four male, four females, completed the survey again using computer screen-based eye tracking. The areas of interest and the order of movement of fixations were noted. The SD scale order placed the perception of the social camouflaged cutlery as more medical than desirable in contradiction to current sales of the product. Eye tracking highlighted that students followed the outline of the highest contrast visual elements when viewing the socially camouflaged cutlery; being drawn away from the outline of the actual shape. In all others, the outline profile was prominent. |
Human factors assessment of armoured fighting vehicle headset function
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Author R. M. van Besouw |
| Abstract Crew of armoured fighting vehicles are exposed to hazardous noise levels and are at high risk of noise induced hearing loss. Headsets are compulsory for hearing protection and communication. Noise health risk assessments were undertaken for British armoured fighting vehicles during two training exercises in 2018. As part of this work, a subjective evaluation and assessment of headset function was undertaken to document the condition of two types of in-service headset as perceived by crew, and to identify issues relating to their usability, functionality and comfort. Demographics, functional assessment and subjective evaluation questionnaires were developed using Level 1 of the Human Factors Assessment Framework. Level 1 concerns the initial human factors assessment of a system using paper-based review, visual inspection and/or functional assessment. The functional assessment comprised 12 tasks in three categories: fit, communication and situational awareness. The subjective evaluation comprised 14 questions in six categories: usability, wear comfort, listening comfort, protection, integration and acceptability. Responses were received from 46 personnel. For both headsets, the percentage of crew reporting success for intercom communication tasks ranged from 3% to 29%. Average subjective ratings were negative for wear and listening comfort, with over two thirds of crew reporting headaches and half reporting tinnitus from headset use. Headsets differed in ratings for helmet integration, due in part to non-individualised fit. It is recommended that future headsets are individually-issued and fit-tested in tandem with other protective equipment, and that they are well-maintained and regularly audited to check the level of performance that they are achieving. |
Identifying the role of human factors in Industry 4.0 Revolution
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Author Setia Hermawati & Glyn Lawson |
| Abstract The current trend and initiative towards a digital revolution in manufacturing is commonly known as “Industry 4.0”. Industry 4.0 aggregates various technologies such as data analytics, internet of things, cloud computing. Recently, a new concept and typology of so called “Operator 4.0” were introduced to elucidate human roles and interaction with different technologies that potentially act as enablers in Industry 4.0 revolution. The typology is mainly based on the type of Industry 4.0 enabler technologies i.e. augmented reality, virtual reality, wearable technologies, intelligent personal assistant, collaborative robot, platform for social networks, exoskeleton and big data analytics. This paper, a literature review, aims to provide further contribution on the concept of “Operator 4.0” and identify aspects that need attention and consideration from human factors experts. For each typology, state of the art reviews were collected and used as basis to achieve the aforementioned aim. |
Software analysis of racing drivers’ interfaces using Link Analysis and Fitts’ Law
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Author James W H Brown, Neville A Stanton & Kirsten M A Revell |
| Abstract This paper discusses the development, application, and proof-of-concept test of software designed to analyse specific aspects relating to the usability of steering wheel-based interfaces in racing cars. A combination of link analysis and Fitts’ Law is employed in order to identify interface efficiency and potential driver physical workload. The racing driver’s primary goal is to win races, this is achieved through a combination of primary and secondary tasks. These sometimes-complex secondary tasks can however overload the driver and cause distraction, leading to driving errors with potentially serious consequences. Equally, drivers experiencing high primary task workload may be more prone to making interface-based errors, particularly when complex secondary tasks are performed. Steering wheel-based interfaces were analysed from four 2017 Formula One season cars, measurements were taken, and control coordinates, dimensions, and control types recorded. A set of typical secondary interactions involving interface controls common to all the cars that might take place within the first ten laps of a race were derived from on-board footage. A software application was developed to load this control layout and interaction data, and carry out link analysis, Fitts’ Law and hybrid calculations. The analysis revealed a range of data, including traversal distances and indices of difficulty for activating individual controls or combinations. This provides insight into efficiency and physical workload levels associated with interface designs. Designs can then by optimised and retested by updating the control layout data, or with variations of interaction data, with the ultimate goal of reducing errors as well as improving safety and driver performance. |
The influences of flight deck interface design on pilot situation awareness and perceived workload
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Author Wen-Chin Li, Andreas Horn & Jingyi Zhang |
| Abstract There are numerous accidents and incidents related to mode confusion. Autothrottle and autopilot are traditionally separated systems on the flight deck, however they can interact through the physics of flight. Avionic engineers have been applying automation to reduce pilot’s workload and enhance flight safety. While basic automated systems performed quite simple tasks such as holding altitude or heading, modern flight guidance and control systems typically have different modes of operation. A new flight mode annunciator (FMA) concept was compared with traditional FMA in conjunction with eye-tracking and NASA-TLX measurements. The experiment involved 17 participants, aged between 22 and 47 years (M = 29.18, SD = 6.73). The results showed that the augmented display significantly reduced the perceived workload on mental demand, temporal demand, and effort by NASA-TLX; also increasing performance and situation awareness during climbing turn on the perception of mode changing by call-out. Furthermore, participant’s fixation duration has significant differences on airspeed and altitude indicators between traditional design and augmented design by adding visual cues of a green border. The relatively high cognitive effort to interpret the existing flight mode annunciation is certainly a contributing factor in mode confusion. The significant differences in fixation duration and subjective workload demonstrate the potential benefits of the proposed visualization cue on the FMA. By simply highlighting the parameters that are controlled by the automation, it greatly reduces pilot workload and enhances situation awareness in mode changing. |
Automated vehicles as a co-pilot: improving communication during the transfer of control
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Author Jediah R Clark, Neville A Stanton & Kirsten M A Revell |
| Abstract Increased automation capabilities create new challenges for automobile designers and manufacturers to address, such as out-of-the-loop performance, mode error, poorly calibrated trust, and breakdowns in communication between agents. A proposed approach to dealing with such issues is to view automation as a co-pilot rather through the implementation of cooperative concepts into automation design. The capabilities for agents to collaborate, coordinate and execute tasks in line with mutual goals and expectations is likely to have a great impact on a number of factors including safety, system efficiency, and trust. The Joint Activity framework proposed by Clark (1996), and applied to automation by Klein et al. (2005), provides a firm theoretical basis in which automation design can be built upon. This draws upon four stages of the handover task in automated vehicles and uses the method of ‘action planning’ to aid in the application of the joint activity framework to handover assistant design. Preliminary themes are discussed, alongside possible practical implications for automated vehicle handover design. |
Human Factors evaluation of an advanced defibrillator for in-hospital cardiac arrest
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Author Lena Catharina Kerle, Dr. Sarah Atkinson & Giulia Miles |
| Abstract This research undertook a qualitative evaluation of an external Advanced Life Support defibrillator, the LIFEPAK® 20e, in one NHS trust. The study aimed to investigate the impact of system factors on the usability and safe use of a defibrillator/monitor used during adult resuscitation in a hospital setting. A systems model approach, a combination of the Systems Engineering Initiative for Patient Safety (SEIPS) model and the onion model has been used as a framework throughout the study. Merging these two models resulted in six components of the work system: People, equipment and devices, tasks and jobs, workspace, environment and organisation. A mixed methods approach has been applied to understand the complex work system and the processes around defibrillator use including expert consultation, device design evaluation, task analysis, semi-structured interviews with expert users and observations of simulation resuscitation training. A key outcome of this study is a representation of defibrillator use in the developed framework, which incorporates the interaction of factors relevant to defibrillator use on the six identified layers. The design of a defibrillator must be highly intuitive and robust for a dynamic clinical environment. Essential impact factors on the safe and efficient use of the defibrillator are non-technical skills of resuscitation providers such as teamwork, explicit task and role allocation, leadership as well as effective and open communication. |
Taking control without guidance: What do drivers of semi-autonomous vehicles think about?
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Author Kirsten Revell, David Keszthelyi, James Brown & Neville Stanton |
| Abstract Cars that can drive themselves are nearly with us and semi-autonomous vehicles are already on the road. The largest gap in our understanding of vehicle automation is how drivers will react to this new technology and how best to design the driver-automation interaction. This study focuses on what drivers pay attention to at different stages of a planned handover from vehicle to driver. Thematic analysis was conducted on think aloud ‘verbal protocol data’ from drivers interacting with a SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) L3 semi-autonomous vehicle using a driver simulator. Focusing particularly on verbalisations indicating Situation Awareness (SA) which is linked to safe transfer of control, and post handover drive, the type and proportion of verbalisations before, during and post handover was captured. During handover, it appeared that drivers minds were directed towards the interaction rather than the road ahead, suggesting safety may be compromised. Examining pre-handover data it was seen that SA verbalisations were very prominent in the 20 seconds prior to engagement when it was expected that drivers would be focused on their secondary task. A level of vigilance pre-handover may therefore negate the frequency of SA verbalisations during handover. The nature of SA verbalisations also change at different stages of handover. Pre and during handover there is a far greater emphasis on ‘checking road conditions’ and commenting on ‘positive road conditions’ compared to post handover where the focus is on other road vehicles and speed. Implications for interaction design in semi-autonomous vehicles is discussed. |
Investigation of UK farmer risk perception and Non-Technical Skills
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Author Ilinca-Ruxandra Tone & Dr. Amy Irwin |
| Abstract Livestock operations pose a high risk of injury and fatality in agriculture, especially for lone workers. In other high-risk industries, non-technical skills (NTS) are recognised as important for safe and effective task performance. However, dedicated research ought to be conducted to investigate how these findings apply to farmers, who are suggested to be highly risk tolerant. The current study used the vignette method to investigate farmer risk perception and risk management strategies, including NTS, in four types of cattle-handling risks related to self, equipment, environment, and animal characteristics. A preliminary sample of 50 farmers from the UK and Ireland was recruited through farming forums and organisational contacts to take part in an online qualitative study. Participants were presented with eight scenarios, two per category of risk, and asked to report their reasoning for proceeding or not and to detail any risk management strategies used. Thematic analysis was used to identify patterns. Farmers appeared to evaluate risk in the light of animal welfare and duty. Scenarios concerning faulty equipment and animal characteristics were perceived as too dangerous. Farmers reported using NTS such as task management, situation awareness, and decision-making to reduce risk. Farmers also considered facilities important for safe completion of livestock operations. These findings suggest that future interventions should aim to frame risk based on farmer priorities and to formally raise awareness about the importance of NTS. |
Improving organisational performance through integration of human factors
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Author Julie Ann Avery |
| Abstract GSK Ware, UK, is home to a leading Pharmaceutical manufacturing site serving patients around the world in Respiratory and Oral Solid Dose medicines. Following an analysis of deviations from process and proactive improvement ideas the site recognised an opportunity to use human factors proactively to create the climate for change to improve how people experience their work and business key performance indicators (KPIs). A strategic program launched in late 2017, adapting the Human Performance route map from BioPhorum Operations Group (22 company members). This map enabled a cohesive, measurable approach supported by accessible education and tools. Progress is benchmarked internally and externally. 18 months on, Human Factors has become business as usual on site, in everyday language, in problem solving and proactive work with relevant training and coaching. Key business KPIs have been sustainably and positively impacted since implementation of the human performance program, sometimes quite dramatically. Ware continues to weave Human Factors into their organisational “DNA” sharing learnings across the GSK network. |
What’s special about Eco-Drivers? Results from an online questionnaire exploring driver habits
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Author Craig K. Allison & Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract Previous research has suggested that fuel usage and emissions can be dramatically reduced should drivers engage in fuel efficient driving practices, commonly referred to as eco-driving. Despite eco-driving being a popular topic for both academic literature and online communities, questions remain regarding whether there are fundamental differences in eco-driving compared to standard driving practices, or whether eco-drivers are repeating standard behaviour more consistently. To address this question, an online questionnaire was developed exploring the extent to which drivers, both those who considered themselves to be eco-drivers and those who did not follow behaviours associated with eco-driving. Results suggest that not only are fuel-efficient driving behaviours known to a greater percentage of the eco-drivers, but also the majority of known fuel-efficient driving behaviours are followed with a significant greater regularity by eco-drivers. Results support the idea that regular drivers need to be made aware of different fuel-efficient driving techniques, and also need assistance to make these behaviours habitual. Future research is also discussed. |
A participatory approach to helicopter user interface design
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Author David McNeish & Martin Maguire |
| Abstract The importance of involving users during user interface (UI) design activities is widely recognised however the nature of this involvement may vary significantly. This study investigated the benefits and challenges of applying Participatory Design (PD) during the development of helicopter UI. During the first phase, four helicopter design professionals were interviewed in order to understand their views on user involvement and current approaches. The second phase involved three helicopter test pilots and three human factors specialists participating in a PD workshop (based on design thinking) focussed on a helicopter UI design case study (the Automatic Flight Control System within a Royal Navy Merlin Mark 2). There was strong agreement from all the participants that user involvement is important and current approaches were described as mainly consultative. Benefits identified included a better understanding of the problem and context of use and therefore closer alignment of the design with user needs. The approach encouraged divergent thinking and benefitted from being multidisciplinary. Minor changes to the workshop format should be considered in order to minimise the risk of bias and make the best use of the participants’ time. This study developed a valuable approach to PD which is likely to be generalizable to other domains. |
Design with intent on the flight deck
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Author Victoria A. Banks, Katie J. Parnell, Katherine L. Plant & Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract New flight deck technologies must be carefully integrated to ensure that the demands of the system match the capabilities of the user. However, as technological advances make technologies more efficient, end users become the increasingly weak link within the chain. With this in mind, it is important that manufacturers take the time to acknowledge Human Factors within the design process and utilise opportunities to engage with actual end users, in this case line pilots. This article focuses on the design and development of a new pilot decision aid that can offer flight crews with relevant information regarding the status of the aircraft during abnormal operating procedures (e.g. following an indication of an engine oil leak). It utilises the Design with Intent method to generate novel design concepts for a new flight deck interface. This is a new method to apply to the domain but holds the potential to incorporate extensive feedback from pilots into the design of new technologies in the flight deck. Preliminary findings from workshops with pilots using this method are discussed with examples taken from the workshop on how the method can inform design concepts. Overall the method was found to generate important key areas of discussion that can be utilised in a user-centred design approach within future flight deck technology development. |
Testing the Usability of a Clinical Guideline
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Author Giulia Miles, Jaina Parmar, Paul Bailey, Samantha Bray, Anna Hill, Charlotte Bebb & Bryn Baxendale |
| Abstract Clinical Guidelines provide essential evidence-based support and direction to clinical staff at both routine and critical events along a patient’s care pathway. This study describes the testing of a new clinical guideline for hyperkalaemia for a large acute trust prior to the guideline being implemented into practice. The study was commissioned via the Pharmacy lead, and was designed to explore whether doctors in training and qualified nurses could understand and implement the new guideline with ease, avoiding prescribing errors and ensuring prompt management of the patient. The usability engineering framework (MHRA, 2017) used for medical devices was adapted as the human factors framework for reviewing the guideline. The purpose was to understand whether the interaction between the written guideline and the users, user interface (paper guideline) and use environment resulted in safe and effective use. Scenario based testing use high and low fidelity simulation was used to test the guideline in two different clinical scenarios. A task analysis of the guideline informed the design of the simulation scenarios and was reviewed and agreed by a team of medical, nursing and simulation educators to ensure fidelity of the scenario. |
Integrating Human Factors within a large NHS Trust
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Author Frances Ives & Dr Peter Isherwood |
| Abstract Achieving integration of Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE) within a large NHS Trust is a challenging, daunting and lengthy task. Despite recognition from a number of organisations within the NHS that HFE can bring benefits to both staff and patients, integration is in its infancy. The NHS Trust considered in this paper has a long established Ergonomics service focusing on the reduction of musculoskeletal problems in staff. In addition, the recognition of non-technical skills had developed through high fidelity simulation training. The Trust aimed to bring both elements together to develop broader HFE knowledge and application. A multidisciplinary Human Factors Faculty (HFF) approach was therefore pursued to create a platform to drive the integration of HFE. Two of the main challenges faced by the HFF were improving the understanding of HFE and limited funding. The platform approach adopted by the HFF pulls in interested people from within the Trust to initiate and support a variety of HFE projects. This has enabled awareness of HFE to grow quickly within the Trust through a variety of means with minimal funding and resources. There are challenges involved with developing and sustaining a Faculty of this nature including maintaining skills, credibility, quality of work and the reliance of a large amount of good will! However, the diversity and quantity of HFE projects and conversations carried out since the inception of the HFF is testament to the impact that such a multidisciplinary platform approach can have within a large NHS Trust. |
Intercity Express Train Driver Controlled Operation: Train Safety Check Experimental Assessment
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Author L. Jones, M. Freer & D. Simmons |
| Abstract Under Driver Controlled Operation (DCO) passenger safety when boarding a train is the responsibility of the driver alone. Body-side Cameras provide In-Cab CCTV imagery allowing the driver to check all carriage doors are unobstructed and perform the train safety check of the platform train interface before leaving the station. Current Rail Industry Standards indicate that drivers can reliably view up to 12 CCTV images, one per carriage, to make the train safety check. However, the new Intercity Express Trains (IET) are longer than other UK rolling stock and require x2 opposing cameras per carriage to ensure no blind spots occur. IET Drivers will therefore need to review twice as many images as on other DCO systems; potentially up to 24 images for one 12-car train. CCD was tasked with investigating whether drivers can reliably detect target incidents with up to 24 images and whether task time for reliable performance will significantly increase. The assessment was conducted as a comparison study between an existing DCO train and the new IET train. Video footage from both trains was captured at Paddington station, with over 200 actors used to simulate a busy platform and target incident scenarios, such as being trapped in the doors, falling over, etc. Two Train Operating Companies provided 39 drivers to participate in a simulated desktop experiment, across 4 combinations of CCTV imagery; 10, 12, 20 and 24 images. The drivers were presented with a series of CCTV videos and asked to identify if there was a hazard that would prevent them from leaving the station. Responses were recorded on bespoke software, capturing target detection performance and response time. CCD were commissioned to conduct the study on behalf of Hitachi Rail Europe and presented the findings to the stakeholder approvals board in May 2018, including the ORR and RSSB. |
Exploring and employing user centred research methods to optimise patient information leaflets
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Author Molly Smyth |
| Abstract Patient Information Leaflets (PILs) are the documents which are obliged by law to accompany medicines. They are packaged within the medication box and play an important role in explaining associated risks, dosages, side effects and other key information. With strains on health services reducing allotted patient appointment times, Patients Information Leaflets play a crucial role in providing patients with critical health information doctors were previously obligated to explain (Adepu and Swamy, 2012). Authors of PILs are assuming patients can understand complex written healthcare information (Graham and Brookey, 2008). This assumption is false and research carried out by the Royal College of GP’s in 2014 found that 42% of patients struggle to understand how to properly take their medication. This suggests that PILs are not communicating as intended, leaving users misinformed and vulnerable. The research within this study used hormonal contraceptive prescriptions, to identify common problems which exist in Patient Information Leaflets. Hormonal contraceptive prescriptions have been chosen as the exemplar since they are heavily prescribed- twenty-five percent of women of re-productive age use hormonal contraceptives (Smith, 2010). User centred research approaches have been employed to identify problems and solutions for the optimisation of Patients Information Leaflets. These methods in order of their conduction were, an online survey, interviews and Regulatory Impact Analysis. Analysis and cross comparing of results from online surveys, interviews and regulatory impact analysis led to the identification of three major themes and subsequent recommendations. 1. The formatting of Patient Information Sheets needs to prove online versions as well as paper based versions. 2. Improved communication methods such as annotated storyboards will see better patient compliance. 3. The language used in the documents is not appropriate considering the patients’ needs. Addressing these themes with solutions is expected to optimise Patient Information Leaflets. |
Railway commissioning using a human factors testing approach
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Author Dr. Amanda C. Elliott |
| Abstract In October 2018, Denmark commissioned a new era of Railway operation, using the European Railway Traffic Management System (ERTMS). The change in operational practices from lineside signalling and no Automatic Train Protection to a fully integrated in-cab Driver Machine Interface solution and a central Traffic Control Centre required a lot of organisational preparation. This case study describes the important role of the Human Factors (HF) testing and Trial Running approach adopted by Banedanmark to test and introduce the new system. The testing process required a lot of preparation, which assisted in the smooth execution of the testing and further analysis. The test scenarios were developed by the HF team, with test responsibility also managed by HF coordinators. Any negative findings and outputs were fed into an improvement cycle which highlighted where technical, operational rules and training changes were necessary. Positive findings were used to provide evidence that the system would be safe to put into service. There are now opportunities to reuse the approach to enable a more efficient roll out of the new system because of the systematic approach and the use of Human Component Mapping (HCM). The outcome has delivered evidence to close operational hazards, which in turn, has provided confidence to put the railway into service. This fills an integration gap, left by the interoperability standards and this testing approach will be reused until the year 2030, when the whole of Denmark will eventually be changed to the new signalling system. |
A qualitative study of sleep trackers usage: evidence of orthosomnia
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Author Samuel Aupetit, Gäetan Dubroca, Sara Escaich, Philippe Cabon |
| Abstract This article deals with digital sleep trackers that give information about sleep duration and quality in everyday life. Despite the number of these devices, scientific and independent studies of their usage are rare. This work aims at describing the acceptance (short term) and appropriation (long term) of these devices in order to identify their benefits and limitations. Data collection combines questionnaires on sleep and user experience, a sleep diary, and interviews on human computer interface. The main results concern the evidence of “orthosomnia”, an anxiety phenomenon, that is affecting people who obsess over the results of their sleep trackers. |
Rebuilding drivers’ situation awareness during take-over requests in level 3 automated cars
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Author Hannah White, David R Large, Davide Salanitri, Gary Burnett, Anneka Lawson, Elizabeth Box |
| Abstract Future, level 3 automated vehicles will enable drivers to undertake non-driving-related secondary tasks while the vehicle is in control. This is likely to impair their situation awareness, and consequently affect their ability to resume control in situations where the vehicle cannot operate autonomously. Nevertheless, proposed take-over requests typically demand that the driver ‘take control’ without attempting to assess or rebuild their situation awareness. In a longitudinal simulator study, forty-nine experienced drivers completed five 30-minute ‘commutes’ (Monday-Friday). The route incorporated an extended episode of automated driving enabling drivers to undertake secondary tasks of their choosing. Take-over requests/HMIs were inspired by the driving skills hierarchy, with twenty-five participants receiving novel ‘top-down’ guidance (tactical followed by control), encouraging them to check for hazards prior to providing control, and the others received traditional ‘bottom-up’ (control) instruction. In addition, participants were provided with either detailed system feedback during periods of automation, or no feedback. This resulted in four conditions in a 2x2 between-subjects design. Following an unexpected, emergency take-over request on day four, drivers with ‘top-down’ guidance checked their mirrors significantly more times during the handover. Additionally, recipients of system feedback were demonstrably ready to drive (based on recognised physical indicators) sooner in response to the take-over request. There were no differences in lateral and longitudinal vehicle control and prevalence of unsafe driving behaviours after the emergency handover. Results can inform the design of ‘top-down’ hand-over HMIs and strategies to help drivers rebuild their situation awareness prior to resuming manual control, following periods of automation. |
Complex Systems’ Safety: an example from Naval navigation
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Author Mike Tainsh |
| Abstract This work addresses the development and application of an ergonomics contribution to the process of safety assessment for complex systems. The approach is general, but in a Naval context. |
Attitudes, perceptions, fatalism and behaviours: some early findings
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Author Rich C. McIlroy, Neville A. Stanton, Katherine L. Plant |
| Abstract Road transport represents the 12th leading cause of death in the UK, and things are not improving. This research focuses on one of the factors behind the statistics; human behaviour. Specifically, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between self-reported involvement in accidents on the road, self-reported pedestrian behaviours, and three social cognitive constructs; road safety attitudes, on-road risk perceptions, and fatalistic beliefs. In a survey of 695 respondents, it was found that attitudes relate strongly to self-reported behaviours, and to some of the constructs measured by the fatalistic beliefs scale used here. Risk perceptions were not found to correlate strongly with any other variable, and splitting the sample by self-reported involvement in accidents resulted in few group differences. Results are discussed in terms of the need for road safety interventions to consider the determinants of behaviour. |
Allocation of Function in the era of Artificial Intelligence: a 60-year old paradigm challenged
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Author Nick Gkikas |
| Abstract The Fathers of the discipline of Ergonomics and Human Factors used their scientific research and real-life experiences of technological development during WWII and the first years of peace that followed to propose a set of principles for Human-Machine Interaction (HMI). These principles stood the test of time and informed common applications of the discipline, such as allocation of function between human and machine for many years. It is only recently with the advancement and generalisation of certain underlying technologies that forms of Artificial Intelligence (AI), machines and systems with non-deterministic behavioural characteristics became operational. The underlying specification of those machines and systems appear to challenge some of the underlying assumptions made by the Fathers of the discipline. The present article revisits those principles of HMI, identifies the changes in the underlying assumptions and discusses the implications of the changes identified to the discipline of Ergonomics and Human Factors. |
Investigating the effect of train occupancy information
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Author Jisun Kim, John Preston & Kirsten Revell |
| Abstract Reducing the negative effects of train crowding could improve passengers’ travel experience by moderating stress, and enhancing comfort. Although crowding seems unavoidable due to an increase in the number of passengers, it should be handled effectively. Thus, this study aims to help improve overcrowding issues by exploring the effects of occupancy information developed to encourage passenger behaviour change. This will be achieved by identifying factors affecting their decision making regarding selection of carriage, and measuring their intentions to board a less occupied carriage as a response to occupancy information. An online questionnaire was conducted, and 119 rail users participated in the study. The majority of them reported that the information was helpful (91%), and they were willing to move to board an emptier carriage if they had been informed (93%). Additionally, the occupancy information was a significant predictor of a passenger’s intention to move to board less busy carriages for proposed travel scenarios as verified in ordinal logistic regression models. |
From systems ergonomics to global ergonomics: the world as a socio-ecological-technical system
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Author Paul M. Salmon, Neville A. Stanton, Gemma J. M. Read, Guy H. Walker, Nicholas J. Stevens & Peter A. Hancock |
| Abstract Our future existence on earth is under threat. Immediate and significant action is required, however, the issues that we face are complex, interrelated, and difficult to solve. The potential role of ergonomics in managing existential threats has been discussed; however, few studies have used ergonomics methods to analyse major global challenges. This article presents the findings from a study that explored the use of a systems ergonomics tool, the abstraction hierarchy from Cognitive Work Analysis, to develop a complex sociotechnical systems model of the world. The aim was to determine whether the method was able to cope with such a large and complex problem space, and to explore what insights the analysis would give on how society can respond to current and future global challenges. The findings demonstrate that the abstraction hierarchy is capable of modelling the world as one large-scale problem space. In particular, the model was able to encapsulate the major global challenges recently outlined by the World Economic Forum. A contribution of the analysis is to show the interrelatedness of the issues underlying these challenges, which in turn demonstrates the difficulties faced when attempting to respond to them. The implications of the model are discussed, along with further work that is required to embed ergonomics in wider multi-disciplinary efforts aiming to tackle current and future global challenges. |
Usability engineering for a complex, medical device: a case study of an MR-Linac
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Author David J Gilmore & Ashleigh Shier |
| Abstract This paper summarises the activities required and complexities encountered while undertaking the usability engineering process for a large, complex, and new-to-the-world medical device – namely Elekta Unity, the first high field Magnetic Resonance (MR)-Linac. The early design-oriented activities have been presented previously, but the usability engineering has predominantly taken place since then. The main challenges lie in the sheer complexity of such a device – combining two potentially harmful technologies into one, in a usage context with many users with different roles to play, and where different components may have their own regulatory documentation. |
Safety Risk Attitudes in Commercial Aviation
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Author Johnny Short, Eric Tchouamou Njoya & Nick Hubbard |
| Abstract The commercial aviation industry is a human-built and human-led system. Hazards are identified, assessed and managed by people. Perceptual dissonance induces inherent subjectivity, and this has the potential to reduce the efficacy of safety risk management. Whilst perception is a key driver of risk attitudes, evidence to show the impact of their proactive management is limited. This case study aims to demonstrate the rationale for further research. |
Comparing the Efficacy of Visual and Verbal Guidance for a Target Car-Seat Posture
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Author Amy Hope, Gary Burnett, David R Large, Laura Millen-Dutka |
| Abstract Car seats are becoming increasingly complex, aiming to promote driver wellbeing and comfort, and overcome musculoskeletal problems caused by poor driving posture and extended exposure. With an increasing amount of adjustments available, the navigation of seat controls can be difficult. A ‘posture coach’ is proposed to help drivers achieve a target seating position. However, it is unclear how best to deliver advice. In a static luxury vehicle, visual (animations) or verbal (speech) three-stage incremental guidance was provided on repeated occasions in a counterbalanced, within-subjects study to thirty experienced drivers - aiming to help guide them to the target seating posture (in terms of backrest and slide-axis seating adjustment). The on-board ECU diagnostic tool was used to determine the current seat position and inform subsequent advice. Results show that, overall, visual instructions were more effective in guiding participants toward the target. Moreover, participants were increasingly effective (proximity to target) in each successive attempt, suggesting positive learning effects following the guidance. A small majority of participants (16 of 30) preferred visual to verbal presentation of instruction. Those who preferred visual instructions were significantly better at following visual instructions than verbal, whereas there was no difference in accuracy for participants who preferred verbal instructions between visual or verbal instructions. This result suggests a multi-modal format may be most effective, especially given the potential distraction of visual information while driving. Results are discussed in the context of developing a ‘posture coach’ to make recommendations periodically throughout a journey (based on the real-time position of the seat) to prevent static posture-related strain. |
