Transportation
Identifying Human Performance Metrics in Air Traffic Control
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Author Lisa Aldridge, Jediah Clark & Mark S. Young |
| Abstract Whilst maintaining safety remains the top priority, the UK needs to increase the number of aircraft that can fly through its airspace. This study uses task analysis to identify a set of performance metrics that will support air traffic controller training, inform airspace and technology design, and support operational decisions that balance the number of aircraft that can fly through UK airspace. A literature review, a review of existing task analyses and a set of workshops with controllers were conducted. The study concludes that measuring the performance of air traffic controllers holistically and continuously, using objective measures of task performance, is relatively unexplored. |
From education and training to the workplace: Gaps and challenges in aviation
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Author Jason Gauci, John De Carlo, Alessia Golfetti, Paola Tomasello, Linda Napoletano, Uğur Turhan, Suat Uslu, Birsen Yörük, Musa Güngören, Joao Gomes-Mota, Nadine Matton, Elpidio Romano, Sabrina Feletig, Daniela Geraldes, Filipa Manaia, Maria Macedo, Ana Ribeiro & Fabrice Drogoul |
| Abstract The aviation sector is constantly evolving, and it is necessary to keep training and education methods and programmes aligned with the needs of the workplace. This paper presents and discusses the results of a multinational study which was carried with 204 participants to analyse the transition from education and training to the workplace. The study was carried out by means of an online survey and structured interviews and focused on four groups of Vocational Education and Training users (flight crew, air traffic controllers, airport operators and Unmanned Aircraft System operators) and three target groups (employees, employers and external training providers). The results of the study highlight gaps in training and education; frequently encountered challenges in the workplace; changes which are expected to occur in the future workplace; and the impact of those changes on jobs and roles. These results will be used to identify new job profiles and to design study pathways, training programmes and assessment tools for the future aviation workforce. |
Leaps and Shunts: Designing pilot decision aids on the flight deck using Rasmussen’s ladders
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Author Victoria A. Banks, Katherine L. Plant and Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract When designing a new pilot decision aid for the flight deck, it is important to understand ‘how’ pilots make decisions in abnormal operating scenarios so that we can ensure they are provided with appropriate support. This paper provides a decision ladder analysis of an aircraft engine oil leak using data collected from six commercial airline pilot interviews. Traditionally, decision-making models are used reactively as a means to explore why things go wrong. However, we explore whether these models can also be used prospectively. Our analysis yields a number of possible design implications for the design of a pilot decision aid on the flight deck. |
Exploring Constraints to Rail Travel for Late Adopters of Technology
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Author Charlotte Lenton, Brendan Ryan & Jillian Rickly |
| Abstract This paper explores the accessibility and support provision in rail passenger environments in the GB rail network for passengers who are identified as late adopters of technology. The research data were collected at focus group sessions with rail industry representatives to gain an industry perspective on late adopters, their support needs, constraints to travel, and factors affecting accessibility of the GB rail network for this passenger group. Findings suggest several stages of the passenger journey which could be impacted by constraints to rail travel for the passenger group of interests and passengers more generally. Additionally, the analysis identifies areas of tension within industry regarding support provision for late adopters of technology in relation to accessibility of services and financial implications. |
Applying barrier analysis to overspeed events in rail operations
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Author Nora Balfe, Ken Byrne & Ron McLeod |
| Abstract Irish Rail has applied the Bowtie Analysis method and followed the CIEHF White Paper guidance on Barrier Management to analyse the risk from overspeed events on the national rail network. The analysis was performed in the early days of the COVID19 restrictions, requiring a virtual approach to the analysis, rather than the normal face-to-face workshop format. This paper briefly describes the process followed and the results obtained, focusing on the learnings and potential improvements to the process, rather than the technical details of the analysis. These include: at what point in the bowtie development process to include frontline expertise; prioritising threats and consequences identified so that most effort can be focussed on the most important controls; the complexity of degradation factors relating to human performance; and ensuring presentation of the results matches the expectations of the stakeholder community. |
The importance of door-to-door journey planning in Mobility as a Service
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Author Em Thorogood, Joy McKay & John Preston |
| Abstract Interest and investment in Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is expanding, and the technology is anticipated to play a key role in affecting behavioural change towards more sustainable personal transit choices on a societal level. As yet there is little published research on the prioritisation of various in-app features with respect to their impact on user experience (UX); an important consideration if stakeholders are to achieve the widespread uptake of MaaS needed to realise their broad environmental and social aims. We examine the impact of the absence of turn-by-turn navigation; analysing data from a set of user trials to identify the uptake implications of this deficit. |
Gender-Equitable Human Factors in Transport Research
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Author Katie J. Parnell, Joy Richardson & Kirsten Madeira-Revell |
| Abstract The transport domain suffers from a historic ‘default male’ bias which has disadvantaged women in facilitating their travel needs, limited their choice in transport modes and increased their risk of serious injury. ‘Close the Data Gap’ (CtDG) is a working group of Human Factors and Transport researchers striving for gender-equity within the transport domain. This paper provides a summary of the issues in the domain and how the group is challenging them. |
All too unfamiliar? A study to investigate the human factors that cause incidents in hire cars
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Author Daniel Healy |
| Abstract Many studies have attempted to understand why driving hire cars can be dangerous. Many attribute the cause of incidents to a lack of familiarity with the driving environment or hire vehicle. This study hypothesises that it is a lack of familiarity with both vehicle and driving environment that are the cause. Using Klein’s Critical Decision Method (CDM) to draw out the mental models of five expert drivers who have been involved in incidents either at home or abroad, this paper delves deeper into the underlying causes and examines the effects of applying existing mental models to unfamiliar scenarios. A summary analysis into the causes behind each incident is provided along with a case study for two of the most insightful interviews. The insights from the interviews are used to create recommendations for safer driving practices within the hire-car industry. |
The gender-data gap in e-micromobility research
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Author Katie J. Parnell |
| Abstract There is a historic ‘gender-data gap’ in transportation research, which has led to a male-bias in the design, experience and development of the transport industry. Electric micromobility is still a relatively new mode of transportation which offers an opportunity to study the mode from a gender balanced perspective, preventing a gender data gap and reducing biases. A literature review was conducted to review the sampling of participants across 296 studies into e-micromobility. The findings suggest that the male-bias in data collection has persisted into this new domain. The impact that this has on this area will be considered alongside providing areas for future research. |
Designing Smart Motorways
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Author Nic Bowler |
| Abstract The AmeyArup collaborative design team were commissioned by Highways England to design two new Smart Motorways schemes on the M1 motorway between junctions 13-16 and 23a-25. The human factors (HF) team from Arup proved the value that could be added to the final product early in the project tender and scoping phases, including the added benefit of helping Highways England achieve their strategic aims of improved customer experience, road user safety and service delivery. This led to HF professionals being included in a smart motorways design team for the first time. As the application of a HF approach was novel to smart motorways design, there was little direction or standards to follow for its integration into the design process. The HF team had to explore methods of integrating with the variety of design disciplines and immersed themselves in various relevant design meetings. The team applied a user-centred approach to the design of all infrastructure and assets requiring human interaction. This involved ensuring the needs of all users - including customers, operators and maintainers - were considered at the beginning of the design process and that these groups were consulted during design development. The aim was to ensure the new smart motorway met user needs and enabled them to carry out their intended actions safely. The HF team identified 125 issues that were progressed to closure and accommodated 114 user-specified requirements in the designs. |
Attitudes to physiological wearables in the workplace in the railway industry
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Author Abigail Fowler, Catherine Harvey, Max L Wilson & Sarah Sharples |
| Abstract This study evaluates railway staff attitudes and perspectives to physiological wearables in the workplace. Findings indicate wearables could suit use in live operational environments, provided data use and data privacy concerns are addressed. The successful application of wearable measures relies on both data being relevant, and wearables being acceptable to staff. The study focuses on signallers, with implications for other staff in transport industries. |
Lessons learned in collaborative working to address rail freight safety risks
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Author David Golightly, Ann Mills, Dougie Hill & Roberto Palacin |
| Abstract Rail freight safety is key to delivering effective, low carbon transport. The Great Britain rail sector has identified a number of risks to address and a programme of work in order to improve safety. However, the multi-stakeholder nature of the rail freight sector in Great Britain can present challenges when addressing those risks. This paper presents a study to identify lessons learned in the execution of collaborative work to address one of those risks – establishing Common Safe Systems of Work. Seven interviews with key stakeholders in the Common Safe Systems of Work project were analysed for learning points to take forward in addressing other rail freight safety risks. 16 learning points were identified with an emphasis on effective project scoping, project governance, communications and clarifying responsibilities. |
How Can Neisser’s Perceptual Cycle Model Be Used To Identify Users’ Information Needs In Maas?
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Author Joy McKay, Em Thorogood & John Preston |
| Abstract This paper aims to demonstrate how MaaS can be optimised by applying Neisser's Perceptual Cycle Model to the Verbal Protocol collected during user trials of a new MaaS app. The results help identify where users’ expectations are not met and information needs remain, thus making completion of the Plan, Book, Pay, Navigate task difficult. By identifying where the MaaS app does not match the users’ existing mental model design recommendations can be made to increase usefulness and usability. |
Advancing Accessible Air Travel Environments for Aging Canadians – A Scoping Review
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Author Ben Koskowich , Maryam Attef, Chantal Trudel, Shelley Roberts& Cheryl Dalziel |
| Abstract While there is evidence to suggest that Canadians over the age of 65 are healthier, more active, and more affluent than past generations of older adults, seniors may experience challenges in air travel due to lack of financial resources or health factors related to the natural process of aging. Such factors, coupled with transportation deficits related to Canadian geography and infrastructure may exclude seniors from engaging in communities beyond their own, whether it be for leisure, work, or health services. Carleton University and the National Research Council have developed a 3-year program to investigate this demographic in air travel with the aim of developing a first-of-its-kind air travel design framework, followed by a demonstration/ proof-of-concept project. Here we share early findings from a rapid scoping review of research focused on older adults in air travel to categorize risks, barriers and opportunities identified by previous researchers. |
Developing a human-centric de-icing system to increase airport capacity and operational safety
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Author Ahmed Yaghi & James Blundell & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract This research paper presents an innovative automated de-icing system designed to enhance operational efficiency, safety, and environmental sustainability at airports during cold weather conditions. Traditional manual de-icing methods, which are labour intensive and pose significant safety risks and environmental concerns, are inefficient and costly. The proposed system incorporates human-centric design principles and advanced automation technologies, including predictive modelling and real-time data analytics, to facilitate safer and more efficient de-icing operations with reduced physical labour and improved aircraft turnaround times. Drawing upon interviews with Bucharest International Airport subject matter experts, the research identified key operational, safety, and environmental challenges in current de-icing processes in order to provide relevant human-centric design requirements. Subsequent system development focused on minimizing human error and physical strain, streamlining equipment preparation, and reducing environmental impact through sustainable practices. The research underscores the need for further empirical testing to validate the system's effectiveness in real-world settings, offering a significant step forward in achieving safer, more efficient, and environmentally responsible airport de-icing operations. |
Can Mobility as a Service really contribute to transport sustainability and equity?
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Author Rich C. McIlroy and John M. Preston |
| Abstract Mobility as a Service (MaaS) aims to facilitate multi-modal, non-car travel by integrating various forms of transportation services into a single, accessible journey-planning and ticketing platform. Literature on MaaS is growing; however, questions remain concerning the features, requirements, and information elements that potential end users themselves consider most important or useful for customer facing MaaS apps, and how those needs depend on factors like gender, age, and where a person lives. This article reports on an on-going project exploring these issues, giving an overview of results from an employer questionnaire and a large focus group study, and introducing a followup questionnaire that is gathering end-user priorities for MaaS systems and interfaces. |
User-centred design and evaluation of future flight deck technologies
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Author Katie J. Parnell, Rachael A. Wynne, Katherine L. Plant, Neville A. Stanton |
| Abstract This work presents an overview of the Human Factors methodologies, and applications thereof, that can be utilised across the design lifecycle of new technologies entering future commercial aircrafts. As advances are made to the architecture of commercial aircraft cockpits, it is vitally important that these new interfaces are safely incorporated and designed in a way that is usable to the pilot. Incorporation of Human Factors is essential to ensuring that engineering developments to avionic systems are integrated such that pilots can maintain safe interactions, while gaining information of value. Taking work from previous research studies, a case study example of technological advancements during its early conceptual stages is presented. This shows how different methods and processes can be applied and combined to ensure that the user is included within the design and evaluation of new flight deck technologies. |
Consideration of Cultural Differences in Future Workplace Design for Single Pilot Operations
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Author Wesley Tsz-Kin Chan & Wen-Chin Li |
| Abstract Future innovations in aviation such as enhanced automation and single pilot operations are projected to change human pilots’ roles, tasks, and occupational structures, requiring adaptations in the human-machine interactive interface. The integration of human users with these interfaces, however, remains the greatest challenge. Research is required to understand how to select an appropriate level of automation for future work, and whether skills and experience gained on present generation aircraft can be transferred onto upcoming, next-generation interfaces and occupational roles. Using the Values Survey Module to gauge pilots’ (N=40) cultural attitudes on Hofstede’s dimensions, this study compares pilots’ intrinsic behavioural preferences with three experience factors of age, qualification level, and total flight hours. It was discovered that the dimension of Power Distance was correlated with age, and that Individualism, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance attitudes were more reflective of extrinsic, surface-level behaviours. An understanding of how different experience factors influence non-technical skills in the long term has the potential to create a better fit between the human and the machine by taking into account role-relevance and changes in cognitive models of operators. |
Urban Mobility: Airtaxi Cabin from a Passengers Point of View
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Author Ivana Moerland-Masic, Fabian Reimer, Maria Stolz, Thomas-Matthias Bock |
| Abstract Within German Aerospace Center (DLR), a project called HorizonUAM was launched in July 2020. Its main goal is to develop and design an aerial vehicle which would support the infrastructure of the ever-growing cities and strengthening the connection between as well the big cities as cities with their suburban areas. The vehicle will be designed for the four different scenarios: airport shuttle, intracity transport, intercity transport and suburban connection. This paper shows the research concerning the potential users of the vehicle including their requirements and shows a possible design solution for an airtaxi cabin. The process has followed the Design Thinking Method, ensuring a central role for the users. To determine whether there are potential passengers willing to use such a vehicle, in-depth research has been done. Data found in previously done research has been compared with results of the in-house research, consisting of a number of workshops with representatives of German population as well as results form questionnaires sent out to a different group of German population. During the workshops, the subjects were asked not only to indicate their opinion on the airtaxis, but also to create their own version of it. This was done following the so-called Disney method, creating the solution in three stages: dreamer, realist and critic. Based on this data, different fictive personas are created, to aid in understanding of the user’s needs. In addition, trend analysis on how the urban mobility is developing, has also been executed. The state-of-the-art solutions available are analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses determined. The entire research has resulted in an extensive list of requirements for the design of the cabin. To address such a complex design challenge, a morphological chart has been created, systematically deconstructing the main function into subfunctions. This has been done by multiple workshops with a constant team. |
Exploring effectiveness of driver attention and alertness monitoring devices for GB railway
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Author Dr Kirsten Huysamen, Paul Leach, Anna Vereker, Dr Claire Coombes, Tom Hyat, Jasmine Bayliss & Anisha Tailor |
| Abstract Seven people died in the Sandilands tram accident in 2006 illustrating the impact loss of driver alertness can have. A study into Signal Passed at Danger (SPADs) revealed that driver alertness and attention were factors in 49% of events. The Rail Safety and Standards Board therefore instigated a study to a) determine what driver attention and alertness monitoring technology would be suitable for GB rail (phase 1) and b) determine the benefits of the technology through a live industry trial (phase 2). The phase 1 evidence indicated that loss of alertness and attention has significant safety consequences, and that driver alertness and attention monitoring technology can help to mitigate this risk. The research recommended that a specific GB rail device is required, and 108 functional requirements were developed. These have been used to procure a device that will be trialled live with three train companies from March 2024 for a year (phase 2). The paper details the phase 1 findings, the phase 2 trial methodology and initial findings from the trial. |
Introducing CHAT to Improve Driver Performance during Level 3 Automated Driving
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Author Emily Shaw, David R. Large, Gary Burnett, Elizabeth Box |
| Abstract Intermediate levels of automation will place new demands on drivers. At this level, system capability allows drivers to turn their attention to non-driving tasks, but system boundaries will require the driver to takeover control when requested and required. Drivers will need to learn how to interact and share control with the system to smoothly transition between modes of automation during dynamic operations. This study introduces “CHAT” (CHeck, Assess, Takeover) as a novel framework designed to improve drivers’ performance during level 3 automated driving. It was evaluated and validated as part of a pre-drive “behavioural” training intervention, during a between-subjects driving simulator study (n=24), with drivers receiving either behavioural training or a written operating manual. Results suggest immediate, positive effects from behavioural training on drivers’ tactical level task performance, most notably visual behaviour, during automated driving and transition of control, and faster disengagement from non-driving tasks following a takeover request. It is suggested that the early engagement in re-building situation awareness, demonstrated by these drivers, led to more informed and measured decision making in relation to the lane change manoeuvre immediately after takeover. Findings support the establishment of a proof-of-concept relating to this proposed training approach. Future studies will focus on further validation and using the novel CHAT procedure to inform the design and development of a human machine interface to support the uptake and maintenance of desired driver behaviours. |
Tool for Estimating Rail Freight Yard Complexity and impact on human performance
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Author David Golightly , David Ethell & James Lonergan |
| Abstract Previous research has identified that the complexity of freight yards – layout, capacity, access and local physical context – is one factor that impacts the safe performance of freight yard tasks. We present the rationale, method and contents of a tool that makes explicit the definition of site complexity, and elements that comprise site complexity. Applications of the tool include site risk assessment, impact assessment of operational change, and potential to underpin a design standard. |
Human discomfort in aircraft cabins: effect of noise level and vibration magnitude
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Author Geetika Aggarwal, Neil Mansfield, Frederique Vanheusden & Steve Faulkner |
| Abstract In recent years, the air transport industry has made significant advancement in technology in context to fuel consumption, maintenance and performance. The most promising developments in terms of fuel efficiency and therefore minimisation of emissions is in future turboprop aircraft (i.e. those generating thrust from a propeller). The main drawback with propeller aircraft is that they tend to have noisier cabins, and there is an increased level of discomfort from vibration due to the tonality that is present. Human comfort perception is a key factor for aircraft manufacturers in the design of airframes and aircraft interiors; the aim of this research study is focused towards building a comfort model for aircraft to enable designers and engineers to optimise the passengers travelling experience. In this paper the authors demonstrate a laboratory experimental study in order to determine the relative importance of noise and vibration for the turboprop aircraft cabin. The results showed that with the increase in noise levels and vibration magnitudes the overall human discomfort also increased, indicating a cross- modal interaction. |
Limiting Anthropometric Criteria for Medical Staff when Undertaking Aeromedical Operations in Rotary Wing Aircraft
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Author Karl J. Rich, Joy Ho & Cameron Edgar |
| Abstract New South Wales (NSW) Ambulance Aeromedical Operations Division (AOD) is standardising helicopter types with increased reliance on the Leonardo AW139. The AW139 has specified limits for the height and weight of medical crew (doctors and paramedics) when harnessed to the front and rear anchor points within the helicopter, and specified limits for the combined weight of medical crew, patients and equipment during stretcher winching operations. An anthropometric analysis was conducted to provide guidance on the height and weight ranges applicable to crew members based on the limitations of three system components: cabin seated height, hardpoint limit and winch limits (during stretcher winching operations). It was determined that seated height is a key dimension that would limit crew ability to interact with the cabin, this was at 935mm with helmet, clothing and seat depression correction factors included. This corresponds to 91st%ile Australian male seated height and 99th%ile Australian female seated height. Therefore, most of the Australian population should be able to sit in the cabin based on this dimension. In the analysis, hardpoint and winch weight limitations do not exclude a significant portion of the Australian population (e.g., 3% of males with a hardpoint weight limit of 130kg). However, it was found that the higher the weight of the crew member, the lower the weight of the patient that can be safely winched, especially when winching occurs below 0°C. Tables were developed to illustrate the effect of the limitations of system components on crew weight. It is concluded that the interaction of the analysed system component with patient weight would be key in understanding applicable crew height and weight ranges. It is recommended that seated height be formalised as an initial guidance, followed by ensuring crew understand the interrelationship between the safe working load on the hardpoint, weight on the winch and patient weight. This presented a good opportunity for NSW Ambulance AOD to integrate calculations of system component limits into formalised training. The operational context and general health/fitness to fly would also need to be considered for effective aeromedical operations. |
The Adaptive Organisation: Progress in understanding adaptation in safety management
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Author Craig Foster, Katherine Plant & Rich McIlroy |
| Abstract In the last 20 years, new theories, ideas, and disciplines of safety have emerged to address the evolving nature of safety management in complex sociotechnical systems. The literature increasingly recognises the importance of adaptation; whereby the people in the system use their skills and experiences to make continuous, real-time demand compensations to ensure safety through trade-offs, self-organisation, informal practices and strategies. This paper presents the results of an investigation into the nature of adaptation and the emerging understanding of the role it plays with reference to the safety of UK air traffic control. |
