The following papers have been published by CIEHF in Contemporary Ergonomics & Human Factors 2017, Eds R Charles & J Wilkinson, ISBN 978-1-5272-0762-2
Contemporary EHF 2017
A Vision for the Future of Radiotherapy
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Author Daniel P. JENKINS, Andrew WOLFENDEN, David J. GILMORE, Malcolm BOYD |
| Abstract This paper describes how a suite of research techniques were used to inform the development of a vision for the future of radiotherapy. The aim of the vision was to conceptualise a next-generation radiotherapy system that creates a step-change in system performance. The impact of the vision on patient and HCP experience, safety, and efficiency were all explicitly considered and measured. The vision was used to inform the design of Elekta’s release of Atlantic – a high-field MRI-guided radiation therapy system. |
Flight Operations as a System of Networks: A Sociotechnical Approach
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Author Neville A STANTON, Katherine L PLANT, Kirsten M A REVELL, Thomas G C GRIFFIN, Scott MOFFATT and Maggie J STANTON |
| Abstract The study reported in this paper used the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method to examine aviation operations from multiple perspectives (Dispatch, ATC/ATM, Maintenance, Loading, and the Cockpit). These networks were created for five key phases of flight: (i) crew briefing, (ii) preflight checks and engines start (iii) taxi and take-off, (iv) descent and landing, and (v) taxi, park and shutdown. The networks have been produced as an ‘information audit’ in order to understand the interactions and connections within the current system. |
Digital Well-Being Across the Ages – Generational Perceptions of Well-Being in Reference to the Use of the Internet and Digital Technology
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Author Barry KIRBY, Jamie-Lee BIRCH, Jasmine CAIN and Victoria NEWLAND |
| Abstract Digital well-being is an extension of the concept of well-being centered around the use of the online and digital world. It is popular to assume the older generations are unsafe and lacking in engagement when discussing the use of the online world and digital skillsets; thus, a potential threat to the development of technology and concepts such as the Internet of Things, Smart Cities and Smart Communities. This paper explores the differences in attitudes towards digital well-being between older and younger generations. |
Collisions at Sea: A Systems Analysis of Causal Factors and Countermeasures
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Author Simon MURRAY, Patrick WATERSON, Thomas JUN |
| Abstract Despite established and proven prescriptive safety legislation, accidents regularly occur across all sectors of shipping. Of particular concern is the number of collisions that continue to occur, even when experienced and trained officers are on board and modern navigation aids are in use. Using a systems approach, this paper will highlight common contributory factors, which can lead to collisions and then propose a set of countermeasures which can be used to reduce these types of shipping accidents. |
The role of ergonomics in creating adaptive and resilient complex systems for sustainability
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Author Andrew THATCHER |
| Abstract Anthropogenic-led changes to our biosphere now threaten to disrupt human health and wellbeing and perhaps even our existence as a species. The principle aim of this paper is to demonstrate what human factors and ergonomics can learn from the study of how natural systems operate. This paper will demonstrate how a complex systems understanding is required to unpack problems, to identify solutions, and to select places in the system where interventions will have the greatest impact. |
Heavy metal: reflections on practice in military vehicle human factors
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Author Will Tutton |
| Abstract This paper discusses what it is like to practice in the development and assessment of military land vehicles. It presents a number of cases of practice and the key learning points, including reflections on requirements, systematic approaches and expert-based approaches to HF engineering for military land vehicles. Military vehicles are becoming increasing sophisticated, and so require more complex human factors methods to adequately understand and improve the. Future trends are also identified. |
Human Factors Integration (HFI) in UK Healthcare: a route map for 1 year, 5 years, 10 years and 20 years
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Author Sue HIGNETT, Will TUTTON, Kerry TATLOCK |
| Abstract This paper reflects on Human Factors Integration (HFI) to consider how Human Factors/Ergonomics has influenced Defence activities, and could influence safety and performance in Healthcare activities. A workshop with 16 Chartered Institute of Ergonomics & Human Factors members was held in July 2016 to discuss and propose a Route Map for HFI in the UK National Health Service. The results set out achievable targets for 1, 5, 10 and 20 years culminating in mandatory HFI to achieve a resilient system for safety culture and work load. |
Does your attention allocation affect how motion sick you can get?
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Author Yue WEI, Xiaojin FU and Richard H. Y. SO |
| Abstract Virtual reality (VR) applications desire maximum vection which is often accompanied by unwanted symptoms of Visually Induced Motion Sickness (VIMS). We report an experiment examining visual attention allocation in the central and peripheral visual field among VIMS susceptible and resistant participants, when exposed to large coherently rotating scene. Results supported our hypothesis that individual VIMS susceptibility is negatively associated with visual attention re-allocation during vection. Findings may enrich our understanding of VIMS and provide potential solutions to optimize vection without causing VIMS. |
Identifying requirements for mapping physiological measurements to distress
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Author Neil DE JOUX, Genovefa KEFALIDOU, Mirabelle D’CRUZ, Sarah SHARPLES, Fay MISICHRONI, Giannis KARASEITANIDIS, and Nikos FRANGAKIS |
| Abstract Advances in wearable devices that record physiological changes provide researchers with greater opportunities to detect stress and other psychological states in real-time. This paper describes research that explores the use of heart rate monitors to gather physiological data from participants over several days. From this research, we make observations from a user perspective, and discuss implications for the use of these devices in real-world contexts. |
A Tool to Generate ‘HF Meaningfulness’ in the Design and Development of Armoured Fighting Vehicles
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Author David KEANE and Chris AVIS |
| Abstract The design and development of Armoured Fighting Vehicles (AFVs) at Lockheed Martin UK Ampthill (LMUKA) takes a Systems Engineering approach and incorporates many engineering disciplines. One of these is Human Factors (HF), which contributes to a number of other disciplines. To support this contribution and to generate ‘HF meaningfulness’ the LMUKA HF Team developed the Systems Engineering Comparison Technique (SECT). The SECT takes a User Centred Design (UCD) approach and incorporates the pairwise comparison technique developed by Thurstone (1927). The main aim of SECT is to take subjective scores and generate objective scores that can be used by Design Engineers and Engineering Leads for improving the design of AFVs. This is done by highlighting the design strengths and weaknesses, which are then fed into future design iterations. |
Optimum Kinect Setup for Real-Time Ergonomic Risk Assessment on the Shop Floor
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Author Chika Edith MGBEMENA, John OYEKAN, Windo HUTABARAT, Sarah FLETCHER, Yuchun XU and Ashutosh TIWARI |
| Abstract 3D motion sensors are useful for systematic and comprehensive data collection towards yielding 3D human motion data for real-time ergonomic analyses and possible automated interventions. Accurate sensor placement helps to ensure decreased measurement errors and increased depth resolutions. This paper presents the optimum Kinect placement setup for accurate data capture in real-time ergonomic evaluations. An application is developed which tracks human skeletal data to yield the best output for the optimal distance, height, and field of view of the sensor. |
Blink counts can differentiate between task type and load
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Author Rebecca CHARLES and Jim NIXON |
| Abstract Physiological measures have increased in popularity due to the growing availability of equipment allowing their measurement in real-time. Eye blinks are an easy measure to collect using video capture. Our findings indicate that blink counts can differentiate between taskloads and task types during a computer-based task, and reflect subjective workload ratings. Blink counts were significantly lower during the tasks involving high visual load when compared to less visually demanding tasks, and lower numbers of blinks were observed under higher taskloads across tasks with a higher visual load. Significant correlations were observed between blink counts and all dimensions of the NASA-TLX for a tracking task, and the mental demand dimension for the combined system monitoring and resource management. No significant correlations were observed for the less visually demanding communications task. |
Development of Human Factors and Cybersecurity Objectives for Mobile Financial Service (MFS)
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Author Stephen AMBORE, Edward APEH, Huseyin DOGAN, Christopher RICHARDSON, and David OSSELTON |
| Abstract Cybercrime is slowing down the adoption of Mobile Financial Service (MFS). Despite the existence of a strong technical infrastructure base for security and the benefits inherent in MFS, adoption has been slow. Highly resilient countermeasures for cybersecurity go beyond just providing technological controls to put in place measures to cater for the human element. This paper presents the findings of an analysis of the human factors issues in complex MFS Socio-Technical System (STS) and the objectives for mitigating these. |
An Insight into Patient Usability Preferences for Injection Devices
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Author Natalie SHORTT |
| Abstract There is little early-stage usability research into the factors that drive patient preference for injection device design. This study aimed to gain insight into patient preferences and underlying drivers in relation to the user-interface for self-injection devices. 128 patients across the US and UK answered dichotomous questions and gave reasons for each choice. An inductive analysis was performed; clear trends emerged in the data, which could aid in heuristic analysis and usability goals for injection device design concepts. |
Novice and Experts Strategies for Understanding Complex Big Data
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Author Andreas REITER, Xianxu HOU, Genovefa KEFALIDOU, James GOULDING |
| Abstract Personal data is everywhere. Its complexity grows exponentially as more devices generate data. Understanding and making sense of complex data is fundamental as critical decisions may depend on its interpretation. In this lab-based observation study both novices and experts were exposed to complex medical information. The findings suggest that medical professionals employ different strategies from non-medics during sense-making and task completion. We discuss implications for designing new decision-making tools that support sense-making complex big data. |
Exploring the Perceived Privacy of On-Screen Information and Its Impact on the User Interface Design of a Self-Service Terminal
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Author Elina JOKISUU, Andrew W. D. SMITH and Phil DAY |
| Abstract Self-service terminals (SSTs) such as automated teller machines (ATMs), often handle information that is personal and sensitive in nature e.g. financial details. So it is vital that the user feels their information privacy is not compromised by the SST. This exploratory study investigates how users perceive the privacy of an ATM user interface. Using paper prototyping and role-play, the study participants identified those user interface areas they perceived to be the most and least private. |
Human Factors Engineering at the early phases of a project
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Author Andrew BRAZIER |
| Abstract While Human Factors Engineering (HFE) is starting to be adopted for projects in the oil and gas industry, there is a tendency to leave it until relatively late. This means that opportunities to influence and improve the design are being missed. The reasons for this include a lack of understanding of what HFE can contribute amongst project personnel; and a similar lack of project understanding by the people responsible for integrating human factors. This paper will make the case of doing more HFE earlier in projects, which will improve the way human factors are addressed and result in better design. |
Scoping ergonomics information with User System Architectures to meet HSE’s COMAH requirements
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Author Mike TAINSH |
| Abstract The Health and Safety Executive (UK) apply the COntrol of Major Accident Hazards (COMAH) regulations during inspections of designated sites. They pay attention to the ergonomics issues associated with the organisation, the jobs and individual characteristics including competency. The organisation needs to scope the ergonomic information, and integrate it appropriately prior to assessment. A User System Architecture (USA) was used to scope and contain all ergonomics information. This supported an integrated understanding of the ergonomics issues, and traceability. |
Challenging the Limits of Cognitive Systems Engineering and Ecological Interface Design: Commander’s Cyber Situational Awareness
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Author Rob HUTTON, Hannah BLACKFORD, Kevin BENNETT, Nigel JONES, and Ade FISHER |
| Abstract Military commanders are increasingly required to understand more than just the physical terrain. Understanding activities in cyberspace and their impact on operations presents a number of challenges for military personnel, tech-savvy or not. This paper presents a cognitive systems engineering approach to providing visualization solutions to support commander decision making. An Ecological Interface Design (EID) approach was used. Challenges for supporting cyber situational awareness are described. |
The impact of transitioning to/from ERTMS operation from a train driver’s perspective
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Author Alice MONK, Mary-Elizabeth CROSS, Stuart McFARLAND, Robert AGUTTER, Lynne, COLLIS, David FLETCHER |
| Abstract The roll out of the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) will expose train drivers to transitions between ERTMS and conventional signalling operation during a journey or work shift. After the transition, there may be a period of adjustment before the driver is completely secure in the new method of operation which leaves potential for degradation in the effectiveness of the driving task. The objective of this research was to identify the safety/performance issues that can be attributed, directly or indirectly, to transitioning between train signalling systems. |
Do plants in an office improve perceptions of wellbeing and work effectiveness? The case of a call centre
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Author Andrew THATCHER and Anastasia KALANTZIS |
| Abstract Numerous empirical studies based on attention restoration theory have shown that plants in the workplace have the potential to have a positive impact on the wellbeing and effectiveness of workers. This study examines the impact of introducing plants into a call centre environment on the employees. A repeated-measures design with a sample of 32 call centre employees revealed a significant improvement in physical measurements of indoor environmental quality but no significant improvements in employees’ perceptions. These results are discussed in the context of the call centre work environment. |
SPAD Dashboard: A tool for tracking and analysing factors influencing SPADs
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Author Nora BALFE, Sean GEOGHEGAN and Brendan SMITH |
| Abstract Signals Passed At Danger (SPAD) continue to be a key risk in railway operations, particularly in areas where safety systems such as TPWS are not yet implemented. This paper discusses the investigation of SPAD events on the Irish railway network and proposes a taxonomy and dashboard for tracking the factors influencing human performance in this context. The dashboard allows the performance shaping factors influencing different error types to be explored and analysed, enabling the development of more effective, systematic recommendations and the communication of human factors to key stakeholders. |
Factors Influencing the Development of Effective Error Management Competencies in Undergraduate UK Pharmacy Students
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Author Helen VOSPER and Sue HIGNETT |
| Abstract Patient safety (PS) is a key healthcare goal, yet health professionals struggle to acquire appropriate expertise, including Human Factors/Ergonomics skills, reflected in undergraduate curricula content. More than 50% of adverse events are medicines-related, yet focus on pharmacists as experts in medicines is scant. This pilot investigation used focus groups and interviews to explore undergraduate PS teaching in purposively-selected UK pharmacy schools. Results revealed barriers to PS teaching including risk-averse pharmacist ‘personality’ and Educational Standards negatively influencing students’ error-management behaviours. |
The Combat Helmet as a System: Development of a Systems Model to Manage Complexity in Ergonomic Assessments
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Author Sheena E. DAVIS, Dr. Steve MILANESE, Alistair FURNELL, Prof. Karen GRIMMER |
| Abstract A systems approach was taken to identify the ergonomic attributes that affect the performance of a combat helmet system. The information was developed into a system model that comprehensively details the attributes, their influencing factors, and the outcome effects. Development of the model enabled the complexity of multi-disciplinary attributes to be managed and communicated. This model provides the basis for an assessment framework and provides a useful tool to inform design, development, and trade-off decisions. |
A short questionnaire to measure wellbeing at work (Short-SWELL) and to examine the interaction between the employee and organisation
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Author Andrew SMITH and Hugo SMITH |
| Abstract The aim of the study was to develop a short measure of wellbeing at work which includes the interactions between the individual and the organisation. This was presented in an online survey to 210 employees doing a range of jobs. Regression analyses showed that positive wellbeing (e.g. job satisfaction; happiness) was predicted by a positive personality whereas negative wellbeing (stress; anxiety/depression) was predicted by negative job characteristics and passive coping. Organisational factors did not predict wellbeing. |
Development of the CIEHF White Paper on Human Factors in Barrier Management: Recommendations and Learnings
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Author Dr Ronald W. McLeod, Dr Ian Randle |
| Abstract CIEHF has recently published a White Paper on the subject of Human Factors in Barrier Management. This is the first White Paper produced by CIEHF and represents a significant step towards establishing a public position on what the Institute believes represents good practice in key areas of practice of the professional discipline of Human Factors and Ergonomics. Development of the White paper was driven by concern among many CIEHF members working in high hazard industries at how human performance is being addressed in some current approaches to barrier management, in particular the Bowtie Analysis method. This paper summarises the process adopted to develop the White paper, including the internal and external consultations undertaken. The contents of the White paper are summarised, including the relationship between elements of a barrier system, concerns with current practice, and recommendations covering Human Factors in the selection, verification, implementation and assurance of controls. A proposed layered approach is introduced where there is a need to examine in detail how barriers can be defeated by human error, and the safeguards that need to be in place to mitigate against it. The paper also identifies seven lessons learned that may provide value to those embarking on similar tasks on behalf of the CIEHF in future. |
A Sociotechnical Systems Analysis Approach to Playground Design
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Author Leigh MISSEN a, Nicholas, J. STEVENS b, Paul, M. SALMON b |
| Abstract This paper describes an application of Work Domain Analysis (WDA) to support urban planning decisions regarding play. The study sought to determine whether WDA offers greater insight to the design requirements of playgrounds. A new understanding of the important interdependencies of objects and functional purposes of playgrounds is revealed. Constraints, complexity, and emergent behaviours are not necessarily concepts associated with urban design challenges; however this paper evidences that they have much to offer if considered within a sociotechnical systems framework. |
It’s not all about the bike: distributed situation awareness and teamwork in elite women’s cycling teams
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Author Paul SALMON, Clare DALLAT, Amanda CLACY |
| Abstract This paper presents the findings from a study examining situation awareness and teamwork in elite women’s cycling. This involved observing an elite racing team during two Australian National Road Series race events and conducting post-race critical decision method interviews. The data were analyzed using the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork framework to show the task, social and situation awareness networks underpinning team performance. The findings are discussed in relation to enhancing cycling team performance and potential applications in other sports. |
Medication Management in Community Care: Using Hierarchical Task Analysis to describe complex systems
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Author Thomas ALLITT, Esther KIRBY and Sue HIGNETT |
| Abstract This paper presents an investigation into medication management at a UK Community Healthcare Trust. Data were collected at two community in-patient facilities to review practice at the two sites against the Standard Operating Procedures for (1) Medicines Management and (2) Controlled Drugs Management for four key tasks: ordering, transportation, receipt and storage of medicines. The variances in practice were discussed with senior management with the recommendation to simplify the system with a single SOP and provision of in-house pharmacy services at both sites. |
Driver Interaction with a Traffic Light Assistant App: A Naturalistic Investigation
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Author Kyle WILSON, Karl BRIDGES, Paul WARD, Simon PARKINSON, Tyron LOUW, Ryan COONEY |
| Abstract A smartphone-based traffic light assistant application, EnLighten, was investigated for its ability to improve subjective driving experience and safely reduce the time it took drivers to ‘move off’ at signalled intersections. Five drivers participated in four trials over a period of three weeks. Testing took place on public roads in unaltered normal traffic conditions. It was found that EnLighten can reduce move-off times, however it presented safety risks. Advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic in-vehicle testing are also discussed. |
A quick history lesson: Lean UX research at Hampton Court Palace
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Author Pete UNDERWOOD |
| Abstract This paper describes the Lean UX research approach used to evaluate the Digital Visitors Guide (DVG) developed for use at Hampton Court Palace. The DVG was tested onsite at the palace over several rounds of research. The DVG was liked by participants, who felt that it was easy to use, engaging, modern and improved their learning experience. Taking a Lean UX approach worked well as insights were delivered, and design recommendations prioritised, efficiently in a collaborative environment. |
Using myoelectric signals for gesture detection: a feasibility study
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Author Farshid AMIRABDOLLAHIAN, Michael WALTERS, Rory HEFFERNAN, Sarah FLETCHER, Phil WEBB |
| Abstract With the technological advances in sensing human motion, and its potential to drive and control mechanical interfaces remotely, a multitude of input mechanisms are used to link actions between the human and the robot. In this study we explored the feasibility of using the human arm’s myoelectric signals with the aim of identifying a number of gestures automatically. We deployed k-nearest neighbour’s algorithm in machine learning to train and later identify gestures, and achieved an accuracy of around 65%. This indicates potential feasibility while highlighting areas for improvement both in accuracy and utility/usability of such approaches. |
Factors Contributing to Task Success: Safety-II in the Context of Community-Based Patient Discharge
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Author Eva-Maria BURFORD, Bill BROWN, Mike FRAY and Patrick WATERSON |
| Abstract This explorative study investigated Safety-I and Safety-II elements in six focus groups with experienced staff involved in the patient discharge process from a community perspective. The elements explored included defining a good discharge, potential errors, influencing factors, weak signals, learning opportunities, and elements that assisted in achieving a successful task outcome. Key findings included identifying person-, task-, and organization-related examples that promote a good discharge. The weak signals and elements aiding success were categorised using the SEIPS 2.0 model. |
Exploring safety culture in the military aviation context
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Author Anthea ASHFORD, Elizabeth HELLIER, Robert BRIDGER and Andrew WEYMAN |
| Abstract While understanding safety culture has become an integral part of many safety management systems, considerable debate on the concept remains. The contextual approach to exploring safety culture has gained interest, using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The current study explored the meaning of safety culture and its underlying components in a military aviation organization. Qualitative analysis yielded six overall themes; these were then developed into a quantitative survey and analyzed using components analysis to explore the underlying themes. |
Save Our Surgeons: An Ergonomics Evaluation of Laparoscopic Hysterectomy
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Author Sue HIGNETT, Esther MOSS, Diane GYI, Lisa CALKINS and Laura JONES |
| Abstract This paper presents an investigation of ergonomic issues and coping strategies during gynaecological laparoscopic surgery. Data were collected with questionnaires, postural analysis and interviews. The results suggest that work-related musculoskeletal disorders were present in almost 90% of survey respondents. The workplace factors included equipment dimensions, preference of port positioning and patient size with limited adjustability for all surgeons to perform comfortably and effectively. These findings have implications for service provision (availability of surgeons) and patient safety (human interface design). |
Can We Learn about Human and Organisational Factors from Past Transfusion Errors?
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Author Alison WATT, Gyuchan Thomas JUN, Patrick WATERSON |
| Abstract Seven human factors models were evaluated using a small number of historical transfusion error reports to explore learning from human and organisational factors to decide the best model for a larger retrospective study. Insufficient information given in many reports led to subjectivity in categorisation, but the conclusion was that the systems engineering initiative for patient safety 2.0 may be the best single system to use. Analysing the human factors effectively in transfusion incidents could provide some insights into process improvement. |
Using screens: How much time are children and young people spending on technology?
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Author Jo FOWLER and Jan NOYES |
| Abstract In the last two decades, anecdotal evidence suggests that screen use has increased considerably in children and has influenced their health and wellbeing. This study investigates how much time children and young adults spend on their screens. Forty-five participants were interviewed; the maximum number of hours spent on screens is 10 and the lowest is one. Mindful use of screens is recommended with careful monitoring of screen use by users and carers of young children. |
Team situational awareness: practitioner-centred design of a safety huddles toolkit
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Author William GREEN, Ceri JONES, John MALTBY, Simon ROBINSON, Damian ROLAND and Carol STAFFORD |
| Abstract Patients die every year because of failure to recognize early warnings of deterioration. A contributing factor is poor team communication and situational awareness. This paper describes the practitioner-centred design of a safety huddles toolkit. Interviews, observations and collective discussions conducted synchronously (face-face) and asynchronously (virtually) informed decisions to iteratively design the toolkit. The toolkit is designed for continuous adaptation to allow practitioner-led improvement for different clinical specialties. Indicative findings (from 50 teams adopting the toolkit) suggest practitioners find it useful for adopting safety huddles and improving team communication and patient awareness. The adoption of the toolkit has been extended 6 months after project completion. |
A Human Factors Approach to Enhanced Machine Learning in Cars
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Author Joseph SMYTH, Stewart BIRRELL, Lech BIREK, Kris KOBYLINSKI, Alex MOUZAKITIS and Paul JENNINGS |
| Abstract Using machine learning techniques, it is possible to learn and subsequently automate certain driver-focused features in consumer vehicles. A human factors approach is taken to review current machine learning systems. Subsequently, it is found that current methods used for machine learning involve long learning times and might not be sufficient to grasp a true understanding of interaction, routine and feature use - a new method is proposed. Issues surrounding trust and acceptance in automation are also explored and recommendations made. |
Cyber-Physical Systems and Society: Some technology-based ‘key messages’ for ergonomics/human factors
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Author Murray SINCLAIR, Paul PALMER and Carys SIEMIENIUCH |
| Abstract The paper reports some of the findings for the H2020 project, Road2CPS. This project was intended to provide advice to the European Commission, based on the outputs of 54 FP7 and H2020 projects plus 18 ARTEMIS and ECSEL industry-based project consortia, all in the area of Cyber-Physical Systems. One of the goals of this project was to identify gaps in the knowledge and applications coverage of CPS and provide recommendations regarding these. The paper reports briefly on the methodology that was used, and the ‘key messages’ arising from the analysis that are relevant to CIEHF academics and pracitioners. |
The Impact of Automatic Train Protection on Ways of Working in Australian Rail: Preliminary Findings from the Driver Perspective
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Author Ty YOUNG, Anjum NAWEED |
| Abstract Automatic Train Protection (ATP) systems monitor and control train movements independently of the driver to provide increased safety. However, few studies have investigated the impact that ATP has on the driver. Given ATP uptake, there is a need to fill this research gap. Using interviews, this study investigated the impact of ATP on traditional train driving in the Australian context. Preliminary findings suggest that uses of ATP are multifarious from the driver perspective and raise further questions for study. |
Setting the standard: a systems approach to the design and evaluation of safety standards
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Author Tony Carden, Paul M. Salmon and Natassia Goode |
| Abstract In 2003, adventure activity providers in Victoria, Australia, began to develop a set of common operating standards. The resulting Victorian Adventure Activity Standards became a model for similar standards in other Australian states. However, the development process lacked systematic rigour. This article argues that sociotechnical systems theory methods are suited to safety standard design and evaluation. A Work Domain Analysis revealed system weaknesses along with potential avenues for modifying and optimising the standards. Potential improvements and broader implications are discussed. |
